Paper on Aromatic Rice in West Bengal, India
*Paper published in the SATSA Mukhapatra, Annual Technical Issue, Seed Hope to Harvest, Feb
2014, Vol 18, Kolkata pp 72-93, anupampaul99@gmail.com
Indigenous Aromatic Rice: Quality
Seed Production and Area Expansion in West Bengal
M. Yadav1, A. Paul*2,
K. Bhowmick1, B. Adhikari3, M. K. Bhowmick3and
C. K. Santra3
1Directorate of Agriculture
(Government of West Bengal), Jessop Building (1st Floor), 63 Netaji Subhas
Road, Kolkata 700 001, West Bengal, India, E-mail: yadav.murari@yahoo.com, kamal.7kb@gmail.com;
2Agricultural
Training Centre (Government of West Bengal), Fulia 741 402, Nadia, West Bengal,
India, *E-mail: anupampaul99@gmail.com;
3Rice
Research Station (Government of West Bengal), Chinsurah (R.S.) 712 102,
Hooghly, West Bengal, India
(Received: October 30, 2013; Revised: January
25, 2014; Accepted: February 02, 2014).
ABSTRACT
Prior to Green Revolution, farmers were used to cultivate more than one
indigenous rice variety in their fields to suit their land, choice of taste,
value addition and cultural preferences. There were more than 100 indigenous
aromatic rice varieties in different regions of undivided Bengal. Green
Revolution with miracle seeds of high-yielding varieties and chemical intensive
farming has been instrumental in eroding the huge rice genetic biodiversity
including aromatic rice and it poses a serious concern for the farming
community, environmentalists, scientists and the policy makers in West Bengal
and India as well. However, at present
only 12-15 indigenous
aromatic rice varieties (IARVs)
are being cultivated in some scattered pockets of different districts in West
Bengal in an unorganized manner. Owing to its unique aroma, aromatic rice
finds a ready market at local, national
and international levels.But no major work in relation to
conservation, characterization and publicity has so far been done in the state,
barring a few sporadic attempts in the past. Therefore, considering the
importance of the International Decade of Biodiversity (2011-2020) during the
regime of WTO-TRIPS, these precious heirloom varieties need to be protected
through ex situ conservation,
purification, characterization and evaluation. One of the major initiatives in
this direction is, therefore, to produce quality seed for expanding its area
further in farmers’ fields towards ensuring remunerative rice farming in the
state. This natural conservation is to be revalorized in the farmers’ fields by
comparing the total productivity of modern variety with indigenous variety. It
has been proved that greater the crop diversity, greater would be the food
security. Along with this line, the Department of Agriculture, Government of
West Bengal has initiated a novel programme in 2012 for purifying the seeds and
expanding the area of the aromatic rice varieties like Gobindobhog, Badshabhog, Radhatilak and Tulaipanji in some
selected districts of the state as a maiden project. Main thrusts are to show
case the quality of the aromatic rice and to reduce the cost of cultivation by
using more of organic matter for sustainable production. This would pave the
way for organic certification and to have greater access to international and
domestic markets.
Key words: Aromatic
rice, Biodiversity, Conservation, Heirloom varieties, Organic certification.
Introduction:
Aromatic rice assumes
immense importance for their taste, aroma and higher market pricein comparison
to good quality non-aromatic rice. Although globally popular aromatic rice
varieties are mostly long-grained, majority of indigenous aromatic rice varieties
(IARVs) in India are small andmedium-grained (Singh et al., 2000).The state of West Bengal(W.B.) had a rich source of
small and medium grain IARVs with excellent grain quality parameters including
aroma. Prior to Green Revolution, farmers used to
cultivate different rice varieties in their fields and aromatic rice was one of them. An unofficial estimate showed that
more than 70 aromatic varieties were in vogue in different agro-climatic zones
of the state. Green Revolution is the major single factor for erosion of these
heirloom varieties (Deb, 2005). The colossal loss of indigenous crop varieties
has been a major concern for all national governments, international treaties,
policy makers, institutions, ecologists and climatologists, and of late,
for the farmers. Deb
(2005) in his famous book, entitled, “Seeds
of Tradition, Seeds of Future” provided detailed morphologicaldescriptions
of 416 Indian indigenous rice varieties.However, at present, only 12-15 IARVs arebeing cultivated in some
scattered pockets of different districts in W.B.in an unorganized manner
(Adhikari, 2012; Adhikariet al., 2011
and 2013). Owing to their uniqueness with respect to special traits like aroma, kernel elongation after
cooking, fluffiness, taste, digestibility etc., the demand of IARVs is
increasing gradually both in domestic and international markets.The recommendation
of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Commerce during 2011 for the export
of Gobindabhog and Tulaipanji from West Bengal has furtherreinforced the
possibilities of harnessing export potentiality of these heirloom aromatic
genotypes. But no major work has so far been done on these rice varieties in
the state, excepting few sporadic attempts in the past.Therefore, top priority
should be given on collection, purification, ex situ conservation, characterization, evaluation and
documentation of these valuable IARVs of the state. It helps in maintaining the
purity of the seed and quality rice production. In 2011, the State Department
of Agriculture took an initiative for purifying the seeds of some scented rice
varieties in farmers’ fields and in state run farms of Burdwan and Birbhum
districts through a monitoring team constituted by the Directorate of
Agriculture. Some selected farmers were given demonstration centres for seed production and area expansion of
some selected aromatic rice varieties under the assistance of the Department. These
farmers would give more emphasis to grow rice organically in near future in
order to maintain soil fertility and sustainable production. It helps to fetch
good market price and to harness export potential as well. Along with this
line, the Department would consider organic certification of their produce
through competent agencies. The chemical intensive agriculture has not only
been expunged local crop genetic diversities, but also their wild relatives
that are the only sources of unique genes for seed development, disease and
insect pest resistance (Deb, 2005).In view of these, ex situ conservation is to be revalorized in the farmers’ fields by
comparing the total productivity of modern variety versusindigenous variety. It has also been proved that greater the
crop diversity, greater would be the food security (Querol, 1992; Deb, 2004a,
2004b and 2005; Mazaret al., 2007;Ushaet al.,2009; Paul, 2012). Change in
climate with regard to delayed monsoon and scattered rainfall, rise in
temperature etc. exertan adverse effect on crop cultivation,especially on the
semi-aquatic crop like rice (Mishra, 2012). West Bengal is no exception. In
many places, farmers are irrigating the kharif(aman) rice with ground water and the time of transplanting has
receded in areas where the farmers are to depend on the arrival of monsoon
rain. If the current weather aberration continues, farmers need to reorient
their crop pattern by restricting rice in some areas (Basuet al.,2013).
Varietal Profile:
The cultivation
of indigenous rice varieties
including aromatic ones has been restricted to some farming families who give
due importance to taste, environment and future food security. It has become
their family tradition. For example, ShriSanatanMandal’s family of Ula village
under Sankraril Block in Howrah (W.B.) has been cultivating Raniakanada variety
since last 100 years and late BhagbatChakraborty of Layekbandh under Bishnupur
Block in Bankura (W.B.) was cultivating Bakulful variety for 50 years without
any grain yield reduction. Mainstream agriculture often fails to recognize them who are still conserving precious
bio-resources.
The reasons for continued cultivation of indigenous rice varieties are as follows (Deb, 1995; Rajukkannuet al., 2009):
a) The small and marginal farmers who grow the indigenous varieties are too
impoverished to buy the costly inputs for growing high-yielding varieties (HYVs);
b) The HYVs often fail to grow in marginal lands
like dry uplands,flood-prone areas, saline areas and wet lowlands, where a variety
of specially adapted indigenous cultivars can grow;
c) Certain heirloom varieties have distinct cultural
or religious significance and are in use during certain religious or social
ceremonies;
d) Many heirloom varieties are grown for their
special aroma and flavour, which are distinctly lacking in the HYVs;
e) There is no good marketing arrangement for these
heirloom varieties;
f) The dwarf and poor quality straw of the HYV paddy
is not ideally suitable for thatching huts and as cattle feed, which is beyond
comparison with the straw of indigenous variety. Moreover, the cost of straw is
three times higher than HYV straw.
There
is a thrust for developing long grain Basmati rice and no comprehensive work
for developing a data base of short grain aromatic cultivars has so far been
done. The short grained aromatic cultivars have tremendous export possibility
and it caters the domestic demand in the local markets as well as the markets
of other states in the country. The cultivars viz. Randhunipagal in Red Lateritic Zone, khas (Gobindabhog / Badshabhog) in Central Alluvial Zone,
Tulaipanji and Kalonunia in North Bengal etc. are well known varieties in the
state. Apart from Deb’s work (Deb 2005) the Rice Research Station (RRS),
Chinsurah (W.B.)has been maintaining andcharacterizingat least 35 IARVsthrough
trials in different agro-climatic zones of the state since 2002. Among them, 14
varieties have been characterized and documented relating to agro-morphic,
physico-chemical, milling and cooking quality traits. Likewise, 40 such IARVs
are being maintained and characterized at Biodiversity Conservation Farm of
Agricultural Training Centre (ATC), Fulia, Nadia (W.B.), and are being
distributed among the farmers. Morphological characters, biochemical, DNA
finger printing etc. are under way. Among them, Radhatilak is the most
promising and it adapts itself in different agro-climatic zones.
Many of the IARVs
have been found to possess excellent traits which can be transferred to HYVs with
the help of modern tools of biotechnology like marker assisted breeding. To
name a few, Seetabhog, a small-grained scented rice variety, elongates more than
100% after cooking; Badshabhog, Gobindabhog,Randhunipagaland Radhatilakretain
their strong aroma in different agro-climatic zones of West Bengal; Kalojira
retains its aroma even after prolonged storage while Tulaipanjihaving mild
delicious fragrance is considered to be the best quality table rice. They have diversified end-uses like table-rice,
special rice dish (Biriyani, Polao), puff rice, desert (Payesh) or fragrant sweet (Jaynagarermoyamade from puff rice of Kanakchur).
As already mentioned, these varieties are of immense value in
agriculture as they are treasure house of innumerable important genes and beyond
any doubt,these local varieties which have sustained in a variety of agro-climatic
conditions since thousands of years are better adapted as compared to HYVs
(Mishra and Sinha, 2012). In the state, short- and medium-grainedIARVs like
Badshabhog, Gobindabhog, Seetabhog, Randhunipagal, Radhatilak, Tulaipanji,
Kalanunia etc. are presently grown during kharif
(aman) season in more than one lakh
hectare of land (i.e. about 3% of total amanrice
area) with an annual production of more than 3 lakh tons.It is known that the
best quality of aromatic rice is location specific. However, a list of IARVs (mostly of 140-155 days’ duration) with their
native areas of cultivation in W.B. is given in Table 1.
Table 1. Indigenous aromatic rice
varieties and their native areas of cultivation in West Bengal
Variety/Land
race
|
Native
areas of cultivation
|
Badshabhog
|
Burdwan (Raina 1, Raina 2, Khandoghosh, Bhatar), Arambagh (Hooghly),
Bankura, Contai (PurbaMedinipore), Srikrishnapur (PaschimMedinipore)
|
Badshahpasand
|
Parts of North Bengal
|
Banshpata
|
Medinipore, Nadia
|
Basmati Aman
|
Medinipore / Dinajpur
|
Bhimsal
|
Medinipore
|
CheenaKamini
|
Chhotomollakhali (South 24 Parganas)
|
ChhotoNunia
|
Jalpaiguri
|
ChiniAtap
|
Cooch Behar
|
Chinisakkar
|
Uttar Dinajpur (Raiganj)
|
Dadhsail
|
Parts of South 24 Parganas (Gosaba)
|
Danaguri
|
Parts of Bankura (Panchal, Indus-Patrasayer)
|
DayalModina
|
Medinipore, Birbhum (Ubli and Dweranda)
|
Dehradoon Scent
|
Birbhum
|
GandhaMalati
|
Birbhum, Medinipore
|
Gayasur
|
Parts of 24 Parganas
|
Ghandheswari
|
Pockets of South 24 Parganas (Khakrakona), Parts of North Bengal,
Khordonahala
|
Gobindabhog
|
Hooghly, Howrah, Nadia (Karimpur), North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas
(Khakrakona), Burdwan (Raina 1, Raina 2, Khandoghosh, Kalna) Pathankhali,
|
Gopalbhog
|
Parts of South 24 Parganas
|
Gujuribhog
|
Jalpaiguri
|
Jamainadu
|
Parts of South 24 Parganas (Gosaba)
|
Kalanunia
|
Foothills of Duars: Jalpaiguri (Churabhander, Mohitnagar), Cooch Behar
(Mathabhanga)
|
Kalobhog
|
Cooch Behar
|
Kalojira
|
Parts of North Bengal (Jalpaiguri)
|
Kaminibhog
|
Parts of 24 Parganas (Pathankhali)
|
Kanakchur
|
Parts of 24 Parganas (Joynagar-Mojilpur, Gosaba)
|
KanthaliChampa
|
PaschimMedinipore
|
Karpurtul
|
Medinipore
|
Katanbhog
|
West Cooch Behar
|
Kataribhog
|
Uttar and DakshinDinajpur (Balurghat and Kumarganj)
|
Khaskhani
|
Bankura, Burdwan, Hooghly
|
Khudikhasa
|
Birbhum, BurdwanSiura, Chakerpur
|
LalBadshahbhog
|
Parts of Purulia (Kadamara, Chorpahari),
|
Lilabati
|
South 24 Parganas (Chotomollakhali)
|
Local Basmati
|
Bankura and other red lateritic areas
|
Mahishladan
|
Parts of Bankura (Badurdara)
|
Mohanbhog
|
Parts of 24 Parganas, Nadia
|
Motibas
|
Purulia, Bankura, Parts of North Bengal
|
NC 324
|
Gangetic alluvial zone, Lateritic tract
|
NC 365
|
Lateritic tract
|
Olee
|
South 24 Parganas (Chotomollakhali)
|
Pipar Bas
|
Medinipore
|
Radhashree
|
Purulia (Dumdumi)
|
Radhatilak
|
PaschimMedinipore,
|
Ramtulsi
|
Darjeeling, Kalimpong
|
Randhunipagal
|
Birbhum, Bankura, Purulia, Burdwan, Hooghly Gopalnagar, Dweranda
|
Sadabhog
|
Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar
|
Sadanunia
|
Cooch Behar
|
ShialBhomra
|
Cooch Behar
|
Sitabhog
|
Uttar and DakshinDinajpur (Balurghat and Kumarganj), Burdwan, Bankura
(Ranibandh)
|
Tulaipanji
|
Uttar Dinajpur (Kaliaganj, Raiganj and Hemtabad)
|
Tulsibhog
|
Uttar Dinajpur, Purulia (Rampur)
|
Source: Adhikariet al. (2011),Rohillaet al. (2000), Mallik and Roy (2013)
Land Suitability:
Most of the
IARVs grow well in medium lands. The varieties like Kaminibhog, Lalabati, etc.
can tolerate more than 1 foot of water and quite resistant to late
transplanting in deep water. Except Tulaipanji of Uttar Dinajpur, almost all
the scented varieties of West Bengal adapt themselves with different
agro-climatic zones. The varieties (Kalonunia, Kaltura) grown in acidic soil of
Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling districts thrive well in neutral soil as
is found in the fields of ATC, Fulia. The grain shape changes with the type of
soils like clay, loam, etc. They require little amount of nutrients unlike
modern HYVs. Aromatic rice varieties grow well in the soils with almost zero
input in Sundarban areas where silts deposited by rivers and rivulets give
significant growth. Assured irrigation and drainage help in quality seed
production (Singh, 2000). Generally lighter soils and upland conditions favour
the aroma formation. It shows excessive abdominal whiteness in grains affecting
cooking qualities if grown in alkaline soil with poor soil moisture during
grain fillingstage (Azeez and Shafi, 1966; Rohillaet al., 2000). Aromatic rice should preferably be cultivated in
fields where any legume crop is an essential component either before or after
rice crop. Apart from Gobindobhog and Badshabhog,Lalbadshabhog and Radhatilak
give good results in a wide variety of soils.
Climatic Requirement:
Quality traits
are known to be influenced by temperature, particularly at the time of
flowering, grain filling and maturity. Synthesis of aromatic compounds and
their retention in grain is better at lower temperature during grain filling
stage (Singh et al., 2003) whereas
high temperature at this stage adversely affects various quality attributes.Meng
and Zhou (1997) observed that the mean daily temperature of 18°C produced best
quality rice.Late planting, coinciding with the flowering and maturity in cooler
days, has been reported to enhance grain quality along with reduction in grain
yield (Rohillaet al., 2000; Singh et al., 2003). For producing high
quality aromatic rice, the lower temperatures during the season are not only
important, but also the differences between the daily maximum and minimum
temperatures, particularly during flowering time are important (Singh and
Singh, 2003).
Agronomic Management:
Better crop
management ensures higher seed yield with enhanced quality.Timely field
operations help in proper utilization of inputs. Healthy nursery, number of
seedlings hill-1, properspacing, depth of transplanting,timely
transplanting and harvesting are crucial to good productivity and quality of
aromatic rice.
Seed
rate:The seed rate may vary due to test weight and
quality of seed, andheavy seeds ensure healthy, sturdy and uniform
seedlings.Normally a seed rate of
20-25 kg ha-1 is recommendedfor conventional transplanting with 3-4
seedlings hill-1. However, 10 kg of seed is needed for covering a
hectare of land by following single plant transplanting method, which is good
for growth and greater biomass.
Seed treatment:Genetically
pure, free from weed seed, healthy and truthfully labeled seed is to be
procured from authentic sources. Before sowing, seed lot is to be dipped in saline water solution (165 g common
salt in a litre of water) for 10 minutes and 2 litres of such solution would be required for 1.0 kg
of seed. Floating chaffy seeds are to be discarded and heavier seeds which
settle at the bottom need to be selected. Seeds are to be taken out from the
salt solution and washed thrice in plain water. Thereafter, seeds are to be
soaked overnight in 1 litre of raw cattle urine, followed by draining the urine
and keeping the seeds in a gunny bag in moist condition for germination. The practice has been followed since 2002 at ATC,Fulia.
Folk seeds are resistant to diseases and insect pests. Seeds may also be
treated with Trichodermaviride.
Planting time:Time
of planting plays a pivotal role in producing higher seed yield and quality. Under
South Bengal condition, seed sowing should be completed during middle to end of
June, and transplanting of 25-30 days’ old seedlings should be done within
middle to end of July in order to have better aroma as well as yield. In North
Bengal, seeds are generally late sown in the month of July and transplanting is
completed within middle of August (Adhikariet
al., 2013; Naybanet al., 2012). In
general, optimum time of transplanting is first to third week of
July in West Bengal. Longer stay ofseedlings in nursery bed
should be avoided to escape node formation which reduces tillering and
ultimately results in poor yields (Sardana, 2003).As the rainfall pattern is
receding towards the end of July, the farmers are to transplant late in W.B.
Moreover, in many parts of the state, kharif(aman) rice needs irrigation using underground water. Because,
transplanting time does not match with the onset of monsoon. Flash flood often destroys
initially transplanted crop in Sundarban areas. Therefore, farmers are to
transplant aged seedlings (40-45 days) singly with a wider spacing of 12//
x 12// along with the separated tillers as already developed in seed
bed. Delayed transplanting under water logged condition has been proved to be
beneficial as it gives rise to 20-25 tillers and subsequently good grain and
straw yields.
Nursery raising:An
area of one-tenth of the main field is enough to raise healthy seedlings. The
field should be ploughed twice or thrice under dry condition along with
incorporation of 500 kg well decomposed farm yard manure (FYM) in an area of
l000 m2. Thorough puddling should be done, followed by leveling.
Thereafter, the field is to be divided in convenient size of beds to have a
better control on irrigation and drainage. Sprouted seeds are to be broadcasted
uniformly in each bed. The beds are to be kept wet and water should not be allowed
to stagnate during the day time to avoid injury to the germinating seeds and
tender young seedlings. Irrigation is to be preferably given in evening to
avoid any damage from standing water in day time as water gets heated up in
noon hours. Hand weeding should be given at 10 days after sowing (DAS). Prior
to transplanting in main field, seedling root dipping is to be done in Azospirillum
(1.5 kg ha-1) solution for 30 minutes. Seedlings can also be raised
with minimum cost and labour.A nursery bed of 320 sqft.area may be divided into
eight plots so that each plot has an area of 40 sqft. (4 ft x 10 ft) and each
one is to be demarcated with mud bund without any ploughing.After through
moistening, each bed is to be layered with vermicompost or cattle manure of one
and half inch thickness. Sprouted seeds weighing 1.25 kg areto be sprinkled
over each plot, followed by covering the seeds with wood ash to protect them
from birds. Seedlingshaving 2-3 leaves become ready in about 12 days for single
plant transplanting with thin layer of water or with adequate soil moisture. However; aged seedlings (30-40 days’
old) can be transplanted singly under water logged condition( Kharif) as practiced in Sundarban areas
and in Goalpara village of Santipur Block in Nadia district (W.B.) during boroseason.
Mainfield
preparation:Main field should be prepared with the use of green
manure and the green manure crop should be trampled at 10 days prior to
transplanting to allow proper decomposition. Azolla can be released to grow in the field having shallow water.
Other details are discussed hereunder.
Crop establishment methods:
Normal transplanting:Two-three seedlings of 25-30 days’ old
(with 4-5 leaves) are to be transplanted in each hill at a spacing of 20 cm ×
20 cm (8// x 8//) and depth of 2-3 cm. But the spacing of
25 cm x 25 cm in case of traditional tall varieties and 15 cm x 15 cm in case
of semi-dwarf varieties should be followed. The gaps should be filled up as
early as possible (within a week) wherever seedlings have died. Wide spacing of
25 cm x 25 cm is needed for single plant transplanting as followed in system of
rice intensification (SRI).
Double
transplanting: Double transplanting is a traditional practice,
locally known as “Charat”, “Guchhibhengeroa” (means transplanting by
separating the hills), “Roabhanga”
(means separating the tillers of the hills) in Gangetic plains of W.B., “Bolan” in North 24 Parganas or “Bagrashi” in red and lateritic areas of
the state and the practice is reported to enhance the yield, aroma, taste and
fluffiness. It is generally practiced as contingent planning to mitigate
natural calamities like drought and flood, or in dearth of quality seeds. In
this practice, the nursery is raised in the first week of June with a normal
seed rate in high land in wet bed condition, locally referred to as ‘Beejtala’(seedbed), from where seedlings
are uprooted after 25-30 DAS and transplanted densely (15 cm x 15 cm) with
12-14 seedlings hill-1 in the first high land field, known as ‘Prathamroakhet’(first transplanted
field). After another 30-35 days of first transplanting, the
seedlings from ‘Prathamroakhet’
are uprooted and the second transplanting is done at a spacing of 20 cm x 20 cm
with 2-3 seedlings hill-1 in the main field, locally known as ‘Dwitiyaroakhet’(second transplanted
field) or ‘Mulroakhet’(main transplanted field) (Adhikariet al.,
2011; Ram et al., 2009). Nursery seedlings from onecuttah area
are initially transplanted in 3 cuttah (one cuttah=720sq ft) area and seedlings
of 3cuttah area are re-transplanted in 24 cuttah of main field. Sometimes,
the tillers are also separated and used for planting. Double transplanting
reduces plant height (by about 15-20 cm) at maturity and improves plant vigor
and culm strength, enabling plants to combat lodging problem without
substantial damage (Rohillaet al.,
2000).
System
of rice intensification: Higher yields with the use of fewer inputs
including seeds can be obtained under SRI in medium to upland areas having
proper drainage facilities. In this method, careful transplanting of young seedlings (8-10
days’ old at 2-3 leaf stage) singly at shallow
depth and wider spacing (25 cm x 25 cm) is advocated. Young seedlings thrive
well in shallow water level.
Direct
seeding:
Some reports show that there is better aroma in direct-sown crop than in
transplanted ones. Owing to paucity of labour, plastic drum seeder can be used
for seeding pre-germinated seeds on puddled soil in main field under medium and
upland situations; but sowing should be completed before onset of monsoonin
areas where monsoon is well defined and predictable.
Nutrient
management:
Organic practice: In
general, 5 t farm yard manure (FYM) ha-1, 2.5-3.0 t vermicompost ha-1,
green manuring / green leaf manuring with dhaincha(Sesbaniaaculeata), 10 kg blue green
algae (BGA) ha-1 or 5 t Azolla
ha-1 should be applied / incorporated as organic manures in main
field (Bhowmick and Dhara, 2010a). For growing rice organically, green manuring
or Azolla incorporation prior to
puddling is an important practice. It is to be followed by incorporation of twigs of GlyricidiaorCleistanthuscollinus (a tree found in PaschimMedinipur
and Purulia districts) as green leaf manure at the time of initial land
preparation. Application
of FYM at recommended dose along with mustard cake / neem cake @ 90 kg ha-1,
rock phosphate @ 150 kg ha-1, N-fixing bacteria (Azospirillum)
@ 5.0 kg ha-1 and phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) @ 3.5-5.0 kg
ha-1, 30 kg molasses, 30 kg rice
dust are to be applied at the time of
initial land preparation. Besides, liquid manure is to be applied
thrice in main field. Rock phosphate
and PSB may be discontinued after two years. This practice has been followed at
the ATC, Fulia for last 11 years. At present, the centre has stopped using any
organic matter or liquid manure in the field because of huge build up of
microbial population and organic carbon. It only releases azollain the main
field at 20 DAT. It suppresses growth of associated plants (weeds) and
encourages crop growth. It has been reported that lower amount of phosphate and
potash does not affect the indigenous crop provided the soil has substantial
organic carbon and colony forming units of bacteria, fungi and saprozoic
nematodes (Paul, 2011).
Preparation of liquid manure: In a shady place, three earthen pots having capacity
of 40 litres each are to be placed inside the soil, keeping the rim out of
ground level. Then, 2.0 kg cow dung, 4.0 litres of cattle urine, 200 g shredded
leaves (each of Adhotavosoka,Vitexnegunda,
Anonasquamosa and Clerodendronsp.), 200 g sour curd, 200 g molasses
and 200 g pulse flour are to be added in each pot. It has to be stirred twice
every day. After about 20 days when the odour becomes less, the entire amount
taken out of one earthen pot may be applied in 1.0 bigha (1.0 ha =7.5 bighas)
just during final land preparation before transplanting. The liquid manure
prepared in another two pots is to be applied at 20 and 40 DAT. If the initial
organic matter is less (half), then the required amount of liquid manure is to
be applied for 6 times in order to compensate the organic matter requirement. Liquid manure can also be sprayed after 21
DAT to enhance plant growth and ward off insect pests and
diseases.
ATC, Fulia has been applying the liquid manure for the last 10 years and it gives
pest and disease free plant growth (Paul, 2009). It reduces cost of production substantially. Depending on plant
growth, soil and environment, vermicompost at 375-750 kg ha-1
or neem cake at 150 kg ha-1 may also be top
dressed.
Application of chemical fertilizers: Usually IARVs are not suitable to accept chemical
fertilizers although farmers are using for getting more grain yield. It was
observed that chemical fertilizers could reduce plant’s resistance to disease
and pest as evident in some parts of Burdwan district where monoculture of
Gobindobhog and Badshabhog goes on with chemical fertilizers. This is not quite
common in South and North 24 Parganas and other districts of the state.
However, the
recommended fertilizer doses for soils having low, medium and high fertility
status are 50:25:25, 40:20:20 and 30:15:15 kg of N:P2O5:K2O ha-1,
of which one-fourth of total N, full dose of P2O5 and
three-fourth of total K2O is to be applied as basal, half of total N
at active tillering (21 DAT) as first top dressing and the rest one-fourth N
and one-fourth K2O at panicle initiation (42 DAT) as second top
dressing. There should not be any standing water in the field at the time of
fertilizer application; otherwise, it should be drained out. Irrigation should
be given at least 24 h after top dressing. Along with this, adequate amount of organic matter should be
incorporated. If organic manures are adequately used, about 25% of recommended
fertilizer dose can be curtailed.
Beyond the recommended N-dose,
excess application of nitrogenous fertilizers may cause more vegetative growth
and taller plants, making the crop more prone to lodging that adversely affects
yield along with inferior cooking and eatingqualities. But potassium
fertilizers favourably influence cooking and eating qualities ofaromatic rice. Application
of P2O5 at higher rate may produce lower quality grain.
Zinc application favourably
influences the rice grain quality parameters. Foliar spray of 0.5% ZnSO4.7H2O
+ 0.25% lime solution can be done twice – the first one with 375 l solution ha-1
at 25-30 DAT and the second one with 750 l solution ha-1 at 45-50
DAT (Bhowmick and Dhara, 2010b). Borax (10.5% B) should be applied at 10 kg ha-1
for terai, Gangetic alluvium and red
lateritic soils, whereas dolomite at 1-2 t ha-1 once in three years
for hill and terai soils, and gypsum at 3 q ha-1 for coastal soils
should be added.Moderate application of sulphur to a deficient soil increased
aroma, softness,whiteness, stickiness and glossiness of boiled rice. Generally,
20 kg S ha-1is recommended as basal application. Alternatively,
single super phosphate (16% P2O5, 12.5% S and 19.5% Ca)
should be used as phosphatic fertilizer which also contains S (Bhowmick and
Dhara, 2010b).
Intercultural
operations: To ensurea good
plant population, the missing hills should be filled within a week after
transplanting, but not late as this can cause non-uniformity in maturity time
and thus, contaminate the seeds. Any extra plants / stand above the number
recommended should be thinned or removed at two weeks after sowing to reduce
plant competition for light, nutrients and water (Aseaet al., 2010).
Cutting of the upper portion of leaf blades of top 5-6 leaves by 10-15 cm for
tall varieties (pruning or
lopping) at 45-55 DAT is suggested to reduce stem borer problem as well as to
prevent lodging without adversely affecting the grain quality and yield
(Angrish, 1991; Sardana, 2003).
Water
management:Continuous submergence of 3-4 cm water for a week
from 3 DAT helps in the establishment of seedlings and development of better root
system, besides controlling weeds. Later on, irrigation may be applied on
alternate days or one day after the disappearance of ponded water. In caseof
limitedsupply of irrigation water, the fieldmay be kept saturated only by
repeated irrigations. The crop should not suffer from any waterstress,
particularly during tillering and anthesis stages.Water stress at the first
stage diminishes tillering, whereas the process of fertilization is affected at
the second stage, which ultimately curtails the size of the sink. Irrigation
may be stopped about a fortnight before harvesting of the crop. Draining the
field makes the crop mature faster and helps to achieve uniform maturity in the
crop. Even diminishing soil moisture at the time of grain filling is reported
to favour the aroma formation (Rohillaet
al., 2000).
Weed management:So far as quality seed production is concerned,weed
management both in nursery and main field are equally important. Water level
should be maintained to avoid weeds in nursery bed. For main field, continuous 3-4 cm standing water for a week from 3
DAT and two
rounds of hand weeding at 20 and 40 DATcan check the weed problem in case of conventional transplanting,
whereas in SRI, use of cono / rotary weeder for mechanical incorporation of
weeds for 3-4 times at 10 days interval starting from 10-15 DAT is recommended.
Initial weeding and incorporation in the rice field is necessary to delay
further weed growth. In any case, weeds should never be allowed to produce seeds
in rice field.Keeping Azolla in the
main field suppresses weed growth. At least 3 weedings are important to have
good crop.
Field
inspection and roguing:Roguing is the
removal of undesirable plants from seed production plots and it can be done at
any time of the crop stage. They may be volunteer plants from earlier crop or
off-types. Being a self-pollinated crop, genetic purity of rice varieties can
be maintained by removing the off-types detected in the field. Regular field
inspections are critical to identify off-types and to remove them before they
contaminate the seed production plots. Field inspections should be conducted at
vegetative, flowering, pre-harvest, and harvest stages. The volunteer paddy
plants emerging from the shattered grains of the previous crop have to be
removed as and when they are noticed in the field. By regular field visits, the
plant growth and development should be followed while attempting to make visual
comparison of varietal characteristics. Field should be inspected by walking in
the field in a clockwise direction to identify and count off-types and diseased
plants in a strip of 1 m x 25 m. Diseased plants and off-types observed in the
field are to be pulled out. Each strip should be finished at a time before
going to next strip (Aseaet al., 2010). All abnormal
plants are to be removed from the field. The characteristics being helpful to
differentiate one variety from the other and also to identify the off-types in
a population of a genetically pure variety are: plant type, growth duration,
vigor, height, tillering habit (compact / spreading), leaf characteristics
(narrow / broad, erect / droopy, long / short), pigmentation, panicle type
(open / lax), spikelet size and shape, stigma and apiculous pigmentation,
presence of awn, hull color, grain size and shape, and pericarp color (red /
white).Standards for
off-types (0.05 and 0.20%) and objectionable weeds (0.01 and 0.02%) like wild
rice (Oryza sativa L. var. fatuaPrain) (Syn. O. sativa L.f.
spontaneaRosch.) should be maintained, considering maximum permissible
limit for foundation and certified seed, respectively, at the time of final
inspection (Trivedi and Gunasekaran,
2013). The most important stages for rouging are at maximum tillering,
at flowering and just before harvest.
Plant protection:It
has already been mentioned that IARVs are not easily affected by diseases and
insect pests. Depending on the climatic conditions, traditional as well as
semi-dwarf HYVs suffer from various insect pests and diseases. Necessary
prophylactic measures, balanced nutrition and clean cultivation can help reduce
losses (Singh, 2000). Among the insect pests, yellow stem borer (Scirpophagaincertulas), leaf folder (Cnaphalocrosismedinalis)
and brown plant hopper (Nilaparvatalugens), gundhi bug (Leptocorisaspp.) and gall midge (Orseoliaoryzae) affect the crop to
varying degrees. Pheromone traps with 5 mg lure may be installed at one week
after sowing in nursery (2 traps ha-1) and at 20 DAT in main field (5-8
traps ha-1 for pest monitoring and 20 traps ha-1for mass
trapping) to control yellow stem borer male moths (Kattiet al., 2009).Chinsurah light trap or any other light trap with 200
watts mercury lamps for 2 h can also be used in the evening. Inundative release
of egg parasitoid TrichogrammajaponicumandT. chilonis @ 1,00,000 adults ha-1
at 10 days interval for 5-6 times starting from 15 DAT or the day of pest
appearance in evening hours for controlling yellow stem borer and leaf folder,
respectively(Anon., 2003; Kattiet al.,
2009). The egg cards (Tricho cards)
containing 1,000 parasitized eggs are to be stapled to the underside of the
leaves at 100 points ha-1 uniformly distributed across the field. Infestation
of insects and diseases becomes less in SRI and double transplanting methodsof
rice cultivation. Application of conventional pesticides is not necessary if
the farmers follow organic farming schedules (Paul, 2009).
Major diseases are bacterial
leaf blight (Xanthomonascampestrispv.oryzae),
sheath rot (Sarocladiumoryzae), sheath
blight (Rhizoctoniasolani), brown
spot (Helminthosporiumoryzae) and
false smut (Ustilaginoideavirens)
which not only reduce the grain yield, but also severely impair the seed
quality. Trichodermaviride3.0 g l-1
can be sprayed for 2-3 times starting from 20 DAT at an interval of 15 days to
prevent different diseases. Otherwise, chemical measures need to be taken.
However, blast (Pyriculariaoryzae) is
not very common and many IARVs like Kalonunia etc. are resistant to it.
Harvesting and threshing:Ascertaining
optimum harvest time is very essential. Harvesting should be done when the
panicles are nearly ripe (about 70% grains mature) and the straw has just
turned yellow (Dhimanet al., 2003). Delayed
harvesting leads to over ripening, grain shedding / shattering and fissure
formation in rice.Early harvesting also leads to grain yieldlosses due to
higher percentage of under-developed green kernels andlow head rice recovery
(HRR). Maximum grain yield and HRR areassured by harvesting the crop at 35 days
after 50% flowering whenmoisture content ranges from 20 to 22% (ChaudharyandIqbal,
1986).The harvested
cropshouldpreferablybethreshedonthesameornextdayofharvesting. Harvesting should
be done from the middle of the field for seed purpose. Seeds of border areas are
to be discarded so as avoid contamination or cross pollination. Delayed
threshing leads to high shattering losses and reduced HRR. Theproduceshouldbedriedand
cleaned properly. Drying helps seeds maintain their ability to germinate and
their vigor for a longer period. Drying also controls mold growth and the
activity of other organisms that reduce the quality of stored grain. Drying
reduces seed discoloration, which lowers the market value of the seed. Seeds can
be safely stored when they have been dried to a moisture content of 13%.
Area
Expansion under Aromatic Rice:
Farmers
are traditionally using their own-saved seeds for aromatic rice cultivation in
small pockets in a scattered way. Some of them are also quite aware of the
importance of quality seeds and they do select good seeds from their field for
planting in the next season. But most of them put emphasis on yield rather than
quality. Other than the current initiative taken by the Department of
Agriculture, Government of W.B. under the aegis of RastriyaKrishiVikashYojana (RKVY), there was no such organized
effort for seed production and area expansion of aromatic rice earlier in the
state. Seed production and area expansion
programme for some particular aromatic rice varieties (Gobindabhog,
Badshabhog, Seetabhog,Radhatilak and
Tulaipanji) was taken up in kharif(2012)
at Government Farms like RRS (Chinsurah, Hooghly), ATC (Fulia) and Block Seed
Farm (Raiganj, Uttar Dinajpur), and selected farmers’ fields of some selected
districts. Farmers of some particular districts (Uttar
Dinajpur, Burdwan, Hooghly and North 24 Parganas) having experience in aromatic
rice cultivation were involved in the programme for producing truthfully
labeled(TL) pure seeds under the supervision of Seed Certification Experts of
the State Seed Certification Agency. Approximately 725 ha of aromatic
rice were monitored by the Department of Agriculture in different districts of
the state. An attempt was taken in kharif(2012) for bringing an
additional area of 525 ha (approx.) under aromatic rice cultivation.In kharif (2013), area under aromatic rice
has been expanded to 2,000ha area, other than seed production in 50 ha of land.Subsequently,
more areas would come under aromatic rice.
However, the likely obstacles for expansion of
area under IARVs are: (a) non-availability of quality seed, (b) weak marketing
network, (c) lack of variety-specific husking facility in production domains,
and (d) lack of organized promotional activity on a broader perspective.
Production
Economics:
Grain yields of
most of the HYVs are declining in many regions throughout the country including
W.B. For example, the average grain yield of MTU 7029 (Swarna), the most
popular HYV in the state, has plummeted from 5.00 t ha-1 to about
3.75 t ha-1 over the years in most of the farmers' fields. Declining productivity is due to law of
diminishing return, imbalance in plant nutrients and soil organic matter, etc. Farmers
are applying more chemical fertilizers and other agricultural inputs for
augmenting the yield; it ultimately leads to increasing cost of production
without any profitable return (Table 2). Consequent upon gradual escalation in the price of critical inputs due
to increasing cost
of petroleum products along
with rising wages of hired labour, the cost involved in the production of HYVs
is leaping up day by day while the market price of high-yielding paddy is not
increasing at a proportionate rate. In fact, HYVs cannot give
substantial yields under all the marginal conditions in farmers’ fields.
Furthermore, no HYV can be grown in marginal land like salt-affected,
flood-prone and drought-prone areas. On the other hand, IARVs have the
abilities to maintain soil health, give sustainable yields and fetch more
profit using less input, as their cost of production under either organic
(Table 3) or good management practice (Table 4) is low. ATC, Fulia (organic farm) has been conducting extensive trials on comparative study of
chemical and organic practices of nutrient management in rice during kharif season for the last couple of
years. It was found that the scented variety ‘Radhatilak’ fetched more price
than non-scented HYVs.
Table 2. Comparative profit statement
for cultivation of non-aromatic (HYV) and traditional aromatic rice varieties
in West Bengal
Items
|
Non-aromatic
|
Aromatic
|
||||
Quantity
|
Selling price
(Rs. unit-1)
|
Return
(Rs.)
|
Quantity
|
Selling price
(Rs. unit-1)
|
Return
(Rs.)
|
|
Rice yield
|
2.50
t
|
18000.00
|
45000.00
|
1.9
t
|
30000.00
|
57000.00
|
Straw yield
|
12
kahan
|
400.00
|
4800.00
|
14
kahan
|
650.00
|
9100.00
|
Gross
|
-
|
-
|
49800.00
|
-
|
-
|
66100.00
|
Net
|
19822.00
|
35785.00
|
||||
Table
3. Estimated input package for organic cultivation of traditional aromatic rice
varieties
Input
|
Quantity
required ha-1
|
Price
rate
(Rs.)
|
Cost
involved (Rs. ha-1)
|
Seed
(Gobindabhog, Radhatilak, Tulaipanji, etc.) for single plant transplanting
|
14 kg
|
30.00 kg-1
|
420.00
|
N-fixing bio-fertilizer (Azospirillum)
|
5 kg
|
60.00 kg-1
|
300.00
|
Phosphate
solubilizing bacteria
|
2 kg
|
60.00 kg-1
|
120.00
|
Rock phosphate
(25% of total P2O5 requirement)
|
40 kg
|
7.00 kg-1
|
280.00
|
Earthen jar
for liquid manure
|
15 nos.
|
200.00 for each
|
3000.00
|
Molasses (To
increase soil bacteria)
|
30 kg
|
40.00 kg-1
|
1200.00
|
Rice bran ash
(source of organic matter and K)
|
1 t
|
200.00 t-1
|
200.00
|
FYM/ cattle manure
|
1 t
|
3000.00
t-1
|
3000.00
|
Green manuring seed
|
30
kg
|
60.00
kg-1
|
1800.00
|
Total
|
10320.00
|
||
Table
4. Estimated input package for cultivation of traditional aromatic rice
varieties with good management practices
Input
|
Quantity
required (Kg ha-1)
|
Price
rate
(Rs.
kg-1)
|
Cost
involved (Rs. ha-1)
|
Seed (Gobindabhog,
Radhatilak, Tulaipanji, etc.) for single plant transplanting
|
14
|
30
|
420.00
|
Rock phosphate
(25% of total P2O5 requirement)
|
80
|
7
|
560.00
|
Micronutrient: ZnSO4.7H2O*
|
25
|
50
|
1250.00
|
N-fixing bio-fertilizer (Azospirillum)
|
5
|
60
|
300.00
|
Phosphate solubilizing bacteria
|
2
|
60
|
120.00
|
Vermicompost
(25% of the total requirement)
|
250
|
6
|
1500.00
|
Green manuring seed
|
30
|
60
|
1800.00
|
Total
|
5950.00
|
||
*ZnSO4.7H2O
to be applied in Zn-deficient soil (based on soil test)
Marketing and Trade:
Present
marketing scenario of aromatic rice in W.B.reveals that producers, in most
cases, sell aromatic paddy in bulk immediately after harvesting or in piecemeal
from their household storage. In a few cases,they process the produce with or
without parboiling, depending on varieties and consumers’ choice. It is primarily
due to their immediate financial need. Even variety-specific husking facilities
are not available in all the production domains of different IARVs. Rural
assemblers having disguised unemployment, mostly belonging to farming community
by tradition, play the role of processor. They receive credit from the
commission agents and function as small paddy processors or household level
paddy processing units. Some progressive mill owners of mini rice mills (only for
husking of aromatic paddy) purchase the produce directly or through agents from
the producers.
Estimated
aromatic paddy producers’ share in consumers’ price in the state is not more
than 40-55%. In case of value addition, which includes processing and husking
operation as well as packaging, it would be more than 70%. For this, no special
skill development is needed as traditionally they possess it.
The farmers
targeted for the support to be extended in respect of organic production of
aromatic rice may be identified as individual or activity cluster to receive
marketing support. Again, zone- or district-specific marketing consortia are
required to be formed involving the individuals and/or activity clusters as
well as Agricultural Marketing personnel responsible for procurement and other
marketing activities. Each individual and/or activity clusters may be provided
with a small packaging machine, packaging material and weighing machine. The
consortium will arrange procurement, labeling, storage and distribution of
these retail packs to Cooperation Department managed ‘Samabayikas’ and other outlets even in other states.PaschimbangaAgri-Marketing Corporation Limited
may be declared as nodal agency for such marketing activities and the
packaged produce may be marketed by the corporation on “no profit, no loss”
basis.
Marketing of
organic produce is possible through organic certification and it fetches
premium price. The producers would get organic certification provided they
adopt organic cultivation continuously for a minimum of 3 years. Aromatic rice deserves special significance in
terms of safe food and as the remunerative crop for resource-poor
farmers. Its demand in domestic and in the international is on the increase.
Way
Forward:
Most of the farmers in the state still continue
to cultivate the chemical intensive HYVs,because they lack alternate
remunerative crops, suitable indigenous folk rice varieties and traditional
knowledge that existed before. Being a surplus state in rice production, there
exist a scope for diversion of surplus kharif
(aman) rice area under the HYVs
towards more remunerative aromatic and fine rice counterparts. For this, it is
necessary to remove the social, financial, ecological and knowledge constraints
faced by the farmers. Community participation for cultivation under both
organic and eco-friendly practices needs to be encouraged to get better impact.
Critical inputs may be provided amongst the farmers free of cost for adoption
of organic (Table 3) / improved eco-friendly practices (Table 4).The target area
of aromatic rice production under organic management both for seed and grain
purpose may be fixed as a minimum of 30 ha in each district under the Seed /
Compact Village programme in the state. The produce (organic rice seed) should
be conserved at local government farms or seed centres and shared with the
local farmers, whereas the excess amount can be marketed by the participating
farmers.
Seeds
of traditional aromatic rice varieties can be used for years together (unlike
HYVs), even for 1000 years (for example, Basmati rice), provided the seed
conservation technique is properly maintained (Paul, 2012). Within few years,
these precious varieties would go extinct if proper care for their conservation
is not taken up and obviously no scientists in the world would bring them back.
Research and extension for IARVs having market
potentiality should be taken into consideration and their inherent qualities
may be exploited for value addition to high-yielders.Pragmatic research endeavor
and organized promotional activity not only helps in saving these precious
indigenous genotypes from extinction, but also boosts the possibilities of
accessing global market.
Conclusion:
Since IARVs are
well adapted to marginal lands requiring fewer inputs, it leaves an opportunity
to reintroduce the folk rice and aromatic rice varieties, in particular, for
sustainable production with minimum cost of cultivation. Many farmers have
resorted to using organic matter for sustainable crop production. They need to
be encouraged through different schemes. Mass awareness is needed in relation
to health and environmental hazards of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Remunerative price is a very deciding factor in this globalized world. But due
importance is to be given on exsitu and insitu crop conservation
as the folk crops contain valuable traits to be used for reintroduction and
breeding at the time of environmental catastrophes as encountered after AILA in W.B. In consistence with the UN
declaration of Decade of Biodiversity (2011-2020) in the regime of WTO-TRIPS,
farmers are to be sensitized and encouraged to diversify their crop varieties
for the future food security. Certified organic produce finds a ready demand in
the international market. Farmers themselves are to be self-sufficient in
seeds. They are to be encouraged to
grow and to maintain purity of the seeds to increase their productivity levels.
Without quality seeds, the output would be very less despite huge expenditure
on other agricultural inputs.Pure
seed is, therefore, a must for increasing productivity and quality of aromatic
rice. Consumers are becoming aware of organically produced crops and the state
policy may be reshaped to uphold the bright future of aromatic rice varieties
of W.B.
References:
Adhikari, B. 2012.Puranoseidhanerkatha - Jai na je sab bhola. Leaflet (in Bengali)
published in the 19th West Bengal State Science and Technology
Congress, Mar. 01-02, 2012, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Bidhannagar,
Kolkata, West Bengal.
Adhikari, B., Bhowmick, M. K. and Bhadra, K. K.
2013.Sugandhidhanerchas, adhik laver aswas(in Bengali). Saar Samachar51(1):
22-28.
Adhikari, B., Bhowmick, M. K., Halder, A. and De, S.
2011. Paschimbangeamanmorsumeysugandhidhanerchas(in Bengali). Saar Samachar49 (2): 33-39.
Angrish, R. 1991. Effect of foliage pruning on
lodging and yield of Basmati 370 rice.Indian
J. Plant Physiology34: 271-273.
Anonymous.2003.
Integrated Pest Management Package for Rice. Government of India,
Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture & Cooperation,
Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Faridabad, India.
Asea, G., Onaga, G., Phiri, N. A. and Karanja, D. K. 2010. Quality Rice Seed Production Manual.Published
by National Crops Resources Research Institute, Kampala, Uganda and CABI
Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.75 pages.
Azeez, M. A. and Shafi, M. 1966. Quality in rice.Technical Bulletin No.
13.Department ofAgriculture, West Pakistan, Government of West Pakistan.p. 50.
Basu, R, N., Mandal, A.K. and Roy, S. 2013. Current
global agricultural scenario and projected climate change impacts on food
security in the late twenty first century. Indian
Biologist45(1): 1-89.
Bhowmick, M. K. and Dhara, M. C. 2010a.Paschimbangedhanutpadaneysusanghatasaarbyabasthapana(in Bengali). Saar Samachar48
(2), July-Sept.: 17-20.
Bhowmick, M. K. and Dhara, M. C. 2010b.Paschimbangedhanutpadaneysusanghatasaarbyabasthapana(in Bengali). Saar Samachar48
(3), Oct.-Dec.: 27-31.
Chaudhary, A. M. and Iqbal, M. S. 1986. Production
technology of Basmati rice.Prog.Farming.6: 17-25.
Deb, D. 1995.
Sustainable agriculture and folk rice varieties: ecological, economic and
cultural aspects. Mimeo.WWF India Eastern Region. Calcutta.
Deb, D. 2004a.Beyond developmentality constructing
inclusive freedom and sustainability.Danish Books, New Delhi.
Deb, D. 2004b.Industrial vs. Ecological Agriculture, RFSTE, New Delhi.
Deb, D. 2005. Seeds
of Tradition, Seeds of Future.Research Foundation for Science, Technology
and Ecology (RFSTE/ Vrihi). New Delhi.
Katti, G., Padmavathi, C., Shanker, C., Padmakumari,
A. P., Jhansilakshmi, V., KondalaRao, Y., Prasad, J. S., Krishnaiah, N. V.andPasalu,
I. C. 2009. Field management of insect
pests of rice – A ready reckoner.Technical Bulletin No. 46.Directorate of
Rice Research (ICAR), Rajendranagar 500030, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.38
pp.
Mallik,
S. and Roy, T. K. 2003.The scope of
cultivation of aromatic rice in West Bengal. (in)A treatise on the scented rices of India (Singh, R. K. and
Singh, U. S., eds.).Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. p.
434-446.
Mazar, F., Buckles, D., Satheesh, P. V. and Akhtar,
F. 2007. Food sovereignty and uncultivated biodiversity in South Asia. Academic
Foundation, New Delhi in association with International Development Research
Centre, Ottawa.
Meng, Y. and Zhou, Z. 1997. Relationship between
rice grain quality and temperature during the seed setting period.Chinese J.
Rice Sci. 11: 51-54.
Mishra, P. K. and Sinha, A. K. 2012.Rice diversity in Bankura district of West
Bengal (India).Bioscience Discovery3(3):284-287.
Mishra, S. 2012. Weather Woes.West BengalLIV (7),
July, 2012, Kolkata. pp. 21-28.
Nayban, G.,
Baidya, D. and Roysharma, J. 2012. Sugandhidhan
– Unnatachaspadhyati. Leaflet (in Bengali) published by Department of
Agriculture, Government of West Bengal, Kolkata.
Paul, A. 2009.Kamkharachedhanutpadanbarate
o dharabahikphalanerjanyaesecheekkalichararoponpadhyati (in Bengali).Basundhara,
Department of Agriculture, Govt. of West Bengal, Mahakaran, Kolkata, AsharSrabanSankhya (1415 in Bengali).
pp. 30-32.
Paul, A. 2011.Comparative study of chemical and organic inputs for sustainable
production of folk and modern varieties of rice.Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Botany, University of Kalyani, Nadia.
Paul, A. 2012. Indigenous Rice: Ignored in
Conventional Agriculture, Crop Culture: Biotechnology Biodiversity, Centre for
Advanced Research and Education (CARE), Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics
(SINP), Kolkata. pp. 29-38.
Querol, D. 1992. Genetic resources - Our forgotten
treasure, technical and socio-economical approaches. Third World Network,
Penag.
Rajukkannu, K., Sathya A. and Quintal, O. 2009: The
diversity of traditional rice varieties in India – A focus on Tamil Nadu. PANAP Rice Sheets.Pesticide Action
Network Asia and the Pacific (PANAP), Penang, Malaysia.12 pp.
Ram, P. C., Mazid, M. A., Ismail, A. M., Singh, P.
N., Singh, V. N., Haque, M. A., Singh, U., Ella, E. S. and Singh, B. B. 2009.
Crop and resource management in flood-prone areas: Farmers’ strategies and
research development. (in) Proceedings
Natural Resource Management for Poverty Reduction and Environmental
Sustainability in Fragile Rice-based Systems (Haefele, S. M. and Ismail, A.
M., eds.), International Rice Research Institute, Philippines. pp. 82-94.
Rohilla,
R., Singh, V. P., Singh, U. S., Singh, R. K.and Khush, G. S. 2000. Crop
husbandry andenvironmental factors affecting aroma and other quality traits.
(in)Aromatic Rice (Singh, R.
K., Singh. U. S. and Khush, G. S., eds.). Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. p. 201-216.
Sardana, V. 2003.Agronomic requirements for higher
yield and superior quality of basmati.Indian
Farmers’ Digest36(6): 19-22.
Singh, A. N. and Singh, V. P. 2003. Extent,
distribution and growing environments of aromatic rices in India. (in) )A treatise on
the scented rices of India (Singh, R. K. and Singh, U. S., eds.).Kalyani
Publishers, New Delhi. p. 211-229.
Singh,
R. K., Singh, U. S., Khush, G. S., Rohilla, R., Singh, J. P., Singh, G.and
Shekhar, K. S. 2000. Small and medium grained aromatic rices of India. (in)Aromatic Rice (Singh, R. K., Singh. U. S. and Khush, G. S.,
eds.).
Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. p. 155-177.
Singh,
U. S., Rohilla, R., Srivastava, P. C., Singh, N. and Singh, R. K. 2003. Environmental factors affecting aroma and
other quality traits. (in)A
treatise on the scented rices of India (Singh, R. K. and Singh, U. S.,
eds.).Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. p.
143-164.
Singh,
V. P. 2000.The basmatirice of India.(in)Aromatic Rice (Singh, R. K., Singh. U. S. and Khush, G. S., eds.).
Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. p. 135-154.
Trivedi, R. K. and
Gunasekaran, M. 2013. Indian Minimum Seed
Certification Standards.The
Central Seed Certification Board, Department of Agriculture and Co-operation,
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi.pp. 605.
Usha, S., Sridhar, R., Karsten, W. and Sreedevi, L.
2009. Denatured rice and threatened nutritional security. Paddy No. 5, Oct. 2009, Thiruvanathapuram.
