Folk Rice Diversity : Cultivation and Culture

Proceedings of National seminar on                                                                    ISBN: 978-93-80663-98-2

Recent advances in rice genomics and biotechnology,

Organised by Department of Biotechnology,

Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, March 23-24, 2013

Folk Rice Biodiversity: Cultivation and Culture

Anupam Paul*

Rice –the word:

Asian rice (Oryza sativa) got its name from the Tamil word arisi. It reached the shore of Africa around 300 BC by the Javanese, Malayan and Indian Soldiers as well as through Arab traders (Deb 2001). Alexander the Great took Indian rice during his invasion to India during 327 BC. It was believed that Aristotle was the first European scientist to record rice as oryzon which was derived from the Greek word oruza and this word has been the source of all European languages for rice (reis-Welsh, Reis-Ger, ryžiai-, Lith, ryz-Pol, rijst-Dutch, orez-Romanian, ris–French, arroz–Spanish, Oriza- Latin). Arab traders called rice al-ruz which changed into arroz in Spanish.

The oldest name of rice in Sanskrit is vrihi. The clear relationship between Iranian berenj, Turkish pirinç and Sanskrit vrihi are consistent with the westward spread of rice and its cultivation from India to Iran and then Turkey.  It is also opined that the word paddy came from Malay word padi meaning un-husked rice.

Other words for rice grain in Uzbek and Uighur are sholi and shali respectively and are also Iranian loan words (shal). Iranian influence has been very strong in Central Asia since antiquity and continued up to modern times, especially among the farmers in the oases. In Bengali  Sali land means low-lying (kharif) rice field and perhaps the Bengali names of rice varieties that are grown in this type of land ends with Sal like Kabiraj sal, Jhinga sal, Rupsal, etc. Sal is pronounced as Sayl in Bangladesh.

*Corresponding author

Assistant Director of Agriculture (Trg), Agricultural Training Centre, Fulia, Nadia, W B, Email: anupampaul@gmail.com

Published by Department of Biotechnology, Viswa-Bharati University and PSB, Santiniketan, West Bengal, India  2014

In China and in Japan the word for Rice is the same word for food. Instead of saying "How are you?" a typical greeting in Chinese is "Have you had your rice today”? In Japan the grains of rice are referred to as "little Buddha" to encourage small children to eat. It is believed that rice spread through Buddhism in the East Asian Countries.

Area:

Rice is a highly adaptable crop. In can be grown 2750 meter above the sea level in Nepal, Bhutan and 3 meter below the sea level in Wayanad in Kerala. The name Wayanad has been derived from the expression 'Vayal nadu' - the village of paddy fields.

Today, the majority of all rice produced comes from China, India, Indinesia Pakistan, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thiland, Mayanmar Philippines, and Japan. Asian farmers still account for 92% of the world's total rice production.

 Between a quarter and a third of the world’s tapped freshwater resources have already been developed to irrigate rice, the staple food for 3 billion people. More than 90% of the world’s rice is produced and consumed in Asia, where rice is a political commodity and where millennia- old practices of growing rice have resulted in specific rice cultures. These cultures need a collective, community-based approach to decision making about the investments in rice fields and about their operation and maintenance. Women participate in various degrees in the cultivation of rice and often have specific tasks such as transplanting, weeding, or harvesting. In Central and West Africa, women constitute the majority of upland rice farmers. Increasing water scarcity and technological response options affect women in different ways.

Nutrition:

On the basis of mean grain yield, rice crops produce more food energy and protein supply per hectare than wheat and maize. Hence, rice can support more people per unit of land than the two other staples. It is, therefore, not surprising to find a close relationship in human history between an expansion in rice cultivation and a rapid rise in population growth (Chang 1987).

Rice is an excellent food source, low in fat and high in starchy carbohydrate. Rice is packed full of vitamins and minerals and provides an excellent source of vitamin E, B vitamins (thiamine, niacin) and potassium. Allergic reactions to rice are rare in the western world, and rice can be an invaluable alternative source of carbohydrate and energy for anyone allergic to gluten or wheat. Rice has been found to be very easy to digest. It is low in fat, low in cholesterol, high in starch, and has a high nutritional content. Rice is also an excellent source of energy.

Table 1. Comparison of major nutrients of rice and other cereals in 100 g

Type of Rice	Energy (cal.)	Protein (g)	Fat (g)	Carb (g)	Fibre (g)	Ca (mg)	Fe (mg)	Thiamin (mg)	Riboflavin (mg)	Niacin (mg)
Raw    (milled)	345	6.8	0.5	77.7	0.6	10	3.1	0.06	0.06	1.9
Parboiled (milled)	346	6.4	0.4	77.2	0.2	9	4.0	0.21	0.05	3.8
Flakes	346	6.6	1.2	77.3	8.2	20	20.0	0.21	0.05	4.0
Puffed	325	7.5	0.1	74.0	4.5	20	6.6	0.21	0.01	4.1
Wheat flour	348	11.8	1.5	71.2	1.2	0.05	0.32	0.45	0.17	1.2
Sorghum	349	10.4	1.9	72.4	1.6	0.03	6.2	0.37	0.13	1.8
Kaon (Setaria italica)	334	12.4	4.7	60.6	8.0	0.03	6.3	0.59	0.11	0

Nutritive value of Indian Foods, by Gopalan et al. (1971), Indian Council of Medical Research Publication, pp.60-114

Another factor in keeping beriberi at bay has been the technique of parboiling rough rice. Rice, which is low in sodium and fat and is free of cholesterol, serves as an aid in treating hypertension. It is also free from allergens and now widely used in baby foods (James and McCaskill 1983).  Rice starch can also serve as a substitute for glucose in oral rehydration solution for infants suffering from diarrhea (Juliano 1985). The protein quality of rice (66 percent) ranks only below that of oats (68 percent) and surpasses that of whole wheat (53 percent) and of corn (49 percent). Milling of brown rice into white rice results in a nearly 50 percent loss of the vitamin B complex and iron and washing of milled rice prior to cooking further reduces the water-soluble vitamin content. However, the amino acids, especially lysine are less affected by the milling process (Juliano and Bechtel 1985).

Rice is also used as medicine in same part of the world. Black rice is rich in antioxidants and vitamins grown in Japan and China. In India, Kalabhat, Burma Black and Manipuri Black rice are the examples of black rice varieties. Rice varieties with red seed coat were very popular in India due to its nutritional qualities. In Bengal, Kabirajsal is believed to be a medicinal rice as the Ayurvedic doctors used to prescribe it after prolong illness. Nivara of Kerala is used for healing the neuralgic pain and to prevent cough and cold during monsoon period. Traditionally, many rice varieties have been used to cure various ailments such as kidney stones, heart diseases and diabetes. Some of the prominent medicinal rice varieties include Karibatha, Kalame, Karikalave, Doddabaira nellu, Kari Gajivili and Sannakki. The ‘Dia anna’ a short for ‘rice for diabetics’, an indigenous rice variety from Nagarkoil in Tamil Nadu, has turned out to be a big hit among the varieties. The rice is rich in fiber, minerals and Vitamin B and E. Originally known as ‘Thuruvai Kalangi’, this fiber-rich rice digests slowly and releases sugar into the blood at slower pace than normal rice. A Bangalore Based NGO, Sahaja Samrudha organized a Red Rice Fair in Bangalore on 15th May 2011 and since then they are instrumental in popularizing the medicinal rice.

Table 2. Nutritional value of medicinal rice in 100 g

Sl. No.	Variety	Energy (cal.)	Protein (%)	Fat (%)	Carbone (%)	Crude Fiber ( %)	Ca (mg)	Fe (mg)	Phosphorus (%)
1.	Ambe mohor	350.24	6.47	1.0	78.84	0.97	0.29	0.8	0.31
2.	Doddabaryra-nellu	352.9	7.04	2.18	76.28	1.07	0.20	0.8	0.23
3.	Navara	364.46	8.12	2.14	78.18	1.05	0.42	1.2	0.48
4.	Kagisali	367.05	6.67	1.89	80.84	0.66	0.26	0.6	0.24
5.	Karikalave	350.85	5.30	0.29	81.76	0.76	0.30	0.7	0.39
6.	Ankura sona (Polished Hy rice)	363.15	5.86	0.15	84.59	0.16	0.10	0.2	0.09

   Source: Sahaja Samrudha Organic Producer Company Limited. Bangalore, 2011

Parboiled rice is popular among the people of Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and parts of West Africa and amounts to nearly one-fifth of the worlds rice consumed (Bhattacharya 1985). People of Eastern part of India use parboiled rice while the rest of states of India prefer raw rice. With the passage of time, rice has been the main staple food of the eastern and north eastern states.

Rice gruel is a favorite dish of Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha. Gruel of red rice is fed to the pregnant and lactating mother as it is supposed to contain iron and Vitamin B complex. The gruel of black rice is obviously black containing rich nutrition. Boiled rice is soaked in water and kept overnight. Most of water is drained and this Panta it is eaten with onion, chili, and curry during the summer months. Some varieties were specially cultivated for Panta making. In Assam, Komol rice soaked in cold water for 2-3 hours for making cooked rice without boiling. It is also eaten like Panata or with curd and molasses.

Binni is a group of glutinous rice (sticky rice) grown mostly in Netrokona, Chittagong of Bangladesh. There were reports of 14 types of Binni rice. Low amylose rice cooks moist and sticky. Intermediate amylose rice is preferred in most rice growing areas of the word. Rice is boiled in one side-open bamboo stump having 1.5-2.2 inch diameters along with coconut shreds and ripe banana and eaten as breakfast Chittagong area. It is also popular in North Eastern states like Arunachal Pradesh. People claim that it induces sleep. It was also used as starching agent for handloom cotton saris in Tangail district of Bangladesh. Puffed rice is kneaded with water and lime and smeared over the newly made cotton sari and Binni was very suitable for this purpose. The puffed rice of Binni is also of great demand because of its taste. The scented puffed rice of Kanakchur of S 24 Parganas of West Bengal was used for making famous sweet Joynagarer moya (puffed rice is made with light molasses of made of date palm juice during the winter months).

Origin and Classification:

There are some opinions on the evolution and origin of present cultivated rice. It is considered that the genus Oryza belongs to the family Poaceae, consists of two cultivated species groups having chromosome no 2n= 24 and 21 wild species with 9 tetraploids sp having 2n= 48. The main cultivated sp. is Oryza sativa, the Asian rice and Oryza glaberrima, the African rice. The possible immediate progenitor of African rice is Oryza breviligulata (annual) and it came from Oryza longistaminata and O. barthii (Vaughan and Morishima 2003). The Asian rice was originated from wild annual Oryza nivara and it came from perennial Oryza rufipogon. The cultivated species of Oryza may be classified as semi-aquatic plants, although extreme variants are grown not only in deep water (up to 5 meters) but also on dry land). Oryza sativa contains two major subspecies: the sticky, short-grained japonica or sinica variety (temperate and tropical), and the non-sticky, long and short-grained indica variety.

A third subspecies, which is broad-grained and thrives under tropical conditions, is now known as tropical japonica. Examples of this variety include the medium grain “Tinawon” and “Unoy” cultivars, which are grown in the high-elevation rice terraces of the Cordillera Mountains of northern Luzon, Philippines. Rice is known to a variety of colours, including: white, brown, black, purple, and red. Though Oryza sativa is native to tropical and subtropical southern Asia, it is being grown all over the world. 

 Glaszmann (1987) sorted Oryza sativa into six groups: japonica, aromatic, indica, aus (from Bengal), rayada (floating rice of Bangladesh), and ashina (floating rice of India). Garris et al. (2004) sorted Oryza sativa into five groups; temperate japonica, tropical japonica and aromatic comprise the japonica varieties, while indica and aus comprise the indica varieties.

Archaeological Evidences:

            There are different opinions on the place of origin of cultivated Asian rice, Oryza sativa. Earlier it was believed that India was the origin of Asian rice, while the discovery in Hemudu sites located at 29º 50´N. Lat (Luo-jia-jiao of Zhejiang Province and Pen-tou-shan of Hunan Province) of East China during 1970s proved that rice was over 3000 years older than that discovered in India (Wikipedia 2011). The well-preserved rice, including indica rice and japonica rice, was proved to be cultivated rice. Rice cultivation was slowly domesticated over the course of two or three millennia in the Lower Yangtze region of Zhejiang, China between 6,900 and 6,600 years ago. In 2011, it has provided the strongest evidence yet that there is only one single origin of domesticated rice, in the Yangtze Valley of China (Molina et al. 2011) There was a rapid expansion of rice cultivation into across Southeast Asia and westwards across India and Nepal (Harris 1996).

 The earliest remains of rice in the Indian Subcontinent was found in the Indo-Gangetic plains dated from 7000–6000 BC though widely accepted time for initiation of  rice cultivation was around 3000–2500 BC belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization.

One of the oldest evidences from India comes from Koldihwa, U P, where rice grains were embedded in earthen potsherds and rice husks discovered in ancient cow dung. The age of the Chalcolithic levels was estimated between 6570 and 4530 B C ( Sharma et al. 1980), but the actual age of the rice remains may be as recent as 1500 B.C. (Chang 1987). Another old grain sample came from Mohenjodaro of Pakistan and dates from about 2500 B.C. (Andrus and Mohammed 1958). Rice cultivation probably began in the upper and middle Ganges between 2000 and 1500 B.C. (Candolle 1884). It expanded quickly after irrigation works spread from Odisha State to the adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in the Iron Age around 300 B.C. (Randhawa 1980)   

In fact, rice cultivation may have reached India by 4000 BC and may have originated somewhere in south-east Asia as early as 7000 BC. It was also found in the first phase of excavation of Pandu Rajar Dhibi (After Mahabharat’s King Pandu) dates back to 2100–1400 BC. While it was the first Chalcolithic or Copper Age site to be discovered, a number of other sites have been discovered in an area spread over the districts of Birbhum, Bardhaman, Bankura, Midnapore and interspersed by rivers like Brahmani, Mayurakshi, Kopai, Ajoy, Kunur ,Damodar, Darkeswar, Shialbati and Rupanarayan.  Pandu Raiar Dhibi reveals the non-Aryan origin of the Bengalis. The excavation at Pandu Rajar Dhibi has provided evidence for the gradual growth of a Chalcolithic culture and its displacement by iron-using people. Paddy rice charcoal is found at Mahishadala (now in Purba Medinipore district), radio carbon dates it to 1380–855 B.C. (Abbasi 2001).

The second stage there, however, shows potters' wheel and looks related to the culture at Chirand of Saran district of Bihar. They cultivated rice, wheat, barley, and lentils like green gram and lentil; and lived in straw huts, had precious stones like chalcedony and agate, and had glazed pottery made on wheels. Zohary and Hopf (2000) reported that O. sativa was recovered from a grave at Susa in Iran (dated back to  1st century AD), at one end of the ancient world indicating another domestication of rice in South Asia.

In Indonesia, evidence of wild Oryza was found on the island of Sulawesi dates from 3000 BCE. The evidence for the earliest cultivation, however, comes from eighth century stone inscriptions from Java, which show kings levied taxes in rice. Rice production in Indonesian history is linked to the development of iron tools and the domestication of water buffalo for cultivation of fields and manuring. Once covered in dense forest, much of the Indonesian landscape has been gradually cleared for permanent fields and settlements as rice cultivation developed over the last fifteen hundred years.

Spreading of Rice:

After 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy and then France, later propagating to all the continents during the age of European exploration. The Moors brought Asian rice to the Iberian Peninsula  in the 10th century. Records indicated it was grown in Valencia and Majorca. In Majorca, rice cultivation seems to have stopped after the Christian conquest, although historians are not certain (Vaughan et al. 2008).

Muslims also brought rice to Sicily. Rice cultivation is well documented further north in Mesopotamia, in Cilicia, the Jordan and Nile valleys, the southern shores of the Caspian, and north-central Anatolia, all before 1500. The two phase model of rice establishment, with a first phase in southern Mesopotamia starting in the period 400 BC-100 AD, and a second phase linked to the expansion of Islam after 1000 AD, seems reasonable.

The rice grown in Central Asia belongs mainly to the sub-species japonica and many cultivars still exist. The UN General Assembly’s declaration of the International Year of the Rice in 2004 was also sponsored by Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, together with many of the large rice producing countries in Africa, Asia and America signifying the importance given to the rice crop in the national economies of Central Asian countries (Nesbit et al. 2010).  

African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between 1500 and 800 BC, Oryza glaberrima propagated from its original centre, the Niger River Delta, and extended to Senegal. However, it never developed far from its original region. Its cultivation even declined in favor of the Asian sp. This wild rice grows in sub-Saharan Africa, and is found in savanna woodland. Oryza barthii grows in deep water, seasonally flooded land, stagnant water, and slowly flowing water or pools; it prefers clay or black cotton soils, and is found in open habitats. It is the progenitor of cultivated African rice, O. glaberrima. (African Rice 1996).

Until the recent introduction of Asian rice, African rice (Oryza glaberrima) has been an important staple for peoples across much of West Africa.  According to Science Daily (May 21, 2010) the African rice--known scientifically as Oryza glaberrima  was domesticated about 3,500 years ago in West Africa, where it thrived for centuries. But today it is grown only in scattered pockets nearing the extinction. Most African rice farmers have abandoned their native varieties for high-yielding Asian rice (O. sativa), which was introduced to the continent through European trade with Asia via Africa about 450 years ago. African rice generally yields better than Asian rice under harsh conditions, where pests and other stresses are intense. Had the problems of grain shattering and lodging been overcome, it could have given a quite acceptable yield of 5-6 tons per hectare in more favorable, rain-fed lowland environments. Nerica (New Rice for Africa) rice varieties, a cross between African and Asian rice, are being hailed as a “miracle crop” that can bring Africa its long-promised green revolution in rice. But outside the laboratories, Nerica is not living up to the hype (Grain 2009).

This species possibly brought to the African continent by Arabs coming from the east coast between the 6^th and 11^th centuries CE. It helped Africa conquer its famine of 1203 (African rice 1996). In 1694, rice arrived in South Carolina, probably originating from Madagascar. Rice cultivation began in California during the California Gold Rush, when an estimated 40,000 Chinese labourers immigrated to the state and grew small amounts of the grain for their own consumption. It was introduced into Hawaii by Chinese immigrants between 1853 and 1862, but it did not thrive as an agro-industry in competition with sugarcane and pineapple (Lu and Chang 1980).

Experimental planting of rice in Australia took place in New South Wales in 1892, although other introductions into the warmer areas of Queensland and the Northern Territories could have come earlier. Commercial planting in New South Wales began in 1923 (Grist 1975). The island of New Guinea began growing rice in the nineteenth century (Bertin et al. 1971).

The dissemination of Asian rice from one place to another took place for serendipitous reasons. Mexico, for example, received its first lot of rice seed around 1522 in a cargo mixed with wheat. South Carolina’s early plantings of rice around 1685-94 allegedly used rice salvaged from a wrecked ship whose last voyage began in Madagascar (Grist 1975; Lu and Chang 1980).

In addition, the deliberate introduction of rice has produced other unexpected benefits. This occurred when the Champa rice of central Vietnam were initially brought to the coastal areas of South China. In 1011-12 the Emperor Chen-Tsung of the Sung Dynasty decreed the shipment of 30,000 bushels of seed from Fukien Province into the lower Yangtze basin because of the grain’s early maturing and drought-escaping characteristics. But its subsequent widespread use in China paved the way for the double cropping of rice and the multiple cropping of rice and other crops (Ho 1956; Chang 1987).

Cooking Preferences:

Consumer preference for cooked rice and other rice products varies greatly from region to region and is largely a matter of personal preference based on upbringing. Different kinds of cooked rice are distinguished by cohesiveness or dryness, tenderness or hardness, whiteness or other colours, flavour or taste, appearance, and aroma (or its absence). Of these features, cohesiveness or dryness is the most important varietal characteristic: High amylose (25 to 30 percent) of the starchy endosperm results in dry and fluffy kernels; intermediate amylose content (15 to 25 percent) produces tender and slightly cohesive rice; low amylose content (10 to 15 percent) leads to soft cohesive (aggregated) rice; and glutinous or waxy endosperm (0.8 to 1.3 percent amylose) produces highly sticky rice. Amylopectin is the other and the major fraction of rice starch in the endosperm.

 Most residents of Shanghai prefer the cohesive keng (Sinica) rice, whereas people in Nanjing about 270 kilometres away in the same province prefer the drier hsien (Indica) type. Tribal people of Burma, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam eat glutinous rice three times a day a habit unthinkable to the people on the plains. Indians and Pakistanis pay a higher price for the basmati rice, which elongate markedly upon cooking and have a strong aroma. Jasmine rice, a counterpart of Basmati rice of Thailand has worldwide acceptability.  People of South Asia generally prefer slender-shaped rice, but many Sri Lankans fancy the short, roundish samba rice, like Pachaperumal which also have red seed coats. Red rice is also prized by tribal people of Southeast Asia (Kiple and Ornelas 2000) and by numerous Asians during festivities. It appears that the eye appeal of red or purple rice stems from the symbolic meaning given the colour red throughout Asia, which is "good luck".

Milling:

The pestle and mortar were doubtless the earliest implements used to mill rice grains. The milling machines of more recent origin use rollers that progressed from stone to wood to steel and then to rubber-wrapped steel cylinders. Wooden Dheki was widely used for manual dehusking. Modern rice mills and husking mills has replaced all Dhekis and also taken away the jobs of odd female workers in the village. The women folk used to sing while dehusking paddy in Dekhi and other manual dehusking tools.

Religious rites and culture:

Unlike Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism, Buddhism has less rigid dietary laws defining what people can eat and with whom they can dine. However, fasting and feasting are integral parts of most religious traditions, and Buddhism is no exception. In rice-growing Asian communities where Buddhism is practiced, food in rituals reflects the rhythms of food production, including its scarcity or abundance during the year.  Both paddy and rice are the integral part of various communities and religions.  The first-solid-food-giving ceremony (Annaparashan in Sanskrit means feeding rice) of a Hindu baby begins with eating Payaesh at 6 months after birth. The baby is gradually introduced to solid foods following this ceremony. Paddy along with grass twigs (Cynodon dactylon) is used for blessings, marriage ceremony, worshipping the Gods and Goddesses. It is a custom to place paddy along with the twigs of grass at the mouth of a dying cow. During the panicle initiation stage of rice at the end of the month of Aaswin (15 September to 15 the October), farmers visit their field after taking a bath and place the amaranth plants, elephants foot, zinger, mustard seed, flowers of Asoka (Saraca indica), raw rice etc in the field and they pray for good health of the pregnant rice plant.

            The Goddess Lakshmi symbolizes wealth and prosperity through grains. Bengalee Hindus replace old paddy with newly harvested paddy during the month of Pous (December 15 to Jan 15) in the sacred pot made of cane stick (Kunke) placed at the feet of the Goddess.

            Nabanna (it means new grain in Bengali) is celebrated by all the communities of India. It marks the harvest festival of rice in Bengal during the full moon of Agrhayan (15th Nov-15^th Dec). Newly harvested rice is boiled with date palm molasses to make Payesh. Some early maturing rice varieties are preferred for this festival.

            Pous Parban (festival at the end of the Pous month) is also an extension of harvest festival of Bengal, celebrated widely by the Hindus and Muslims. Different rice cakes (pithe, puli, ras bara, saru chakli etc) are prepared with the rice flour of newly harvested rice, scented rice is in great demand. Earlier there were more than 50 types of rice cakes were in vogue but with advent of fast food these cultures are fast vanishing. Tribes like Saontals celebrate it as Janbar/Baoui festival. It is worth mentioning that the speakers of Austric language (Saontali, Ho, Mundari etc) developed the rice cultivation technique in the eastern part of India.

            The Jagannath Temple of Puri used to make 365 types of Mahprasda from 365 different rice varieties grown by the farmers cultivating around the temple. The conserving the folk rice variety was linked to religious rites.

Vanishing Wealth:

            From a single sp of Oryza sativa, more than 82000 (NBPGR, 2007-08) rice varieties were selected by the farmers of Indian subcontinent. It took several centuries. These are region specific indigenous or folk varieties. A survey during 1930 revealed that the Bengal (east and west) had 15000 folk rice varieties

(UBINIG 2010). On the other hand, nearly 600 modern rice varieties were developed in India by crossing indica and japonica or selection from the cross.

International Rice Research Institute of Manila, Philippines has the largest collection folk rice varieties from different countries. One record reveals that Rice Research Station, Chinsurah, West Bengal has sent more than 3500 varieties to IRRI during 1975-1983 (Deb 2005). Mostly these are not well maintained by the donor countries. These are not easy accessible to the donor countries. This is the primary source of hybridization but the farmers or the farmers' group maintaining them over the centuries are not getting share of the newly produced HYV seeds out of their folk varieties. Meanwhile most of the region specific folk rice varieties have been pushed into extinction due to input intensive modern varieties in the name of Green Revolution. Out of 5500 folk varieties of West Bengal, only a handful of folk rice are extant in farmers' fields. It has been lost forever along with the unique genetic makeup. It is a loss for the entire human civilization.

 Table  3. List of the countries that sent the rice germplasm to IRRI, Philippines

Sl. No.	Country from where the seed collected	No of folk varieties
1.	India	16013
2.	Laos	15280
3.	Indonesia	8993
4.	China	8507
5.	Thailand	5985
6.	Bangladesh	5923
7.	Philippines	5515
8.	Cambodia	4908
9.	Malaysia	4028
10.	Myanmar	3335
11.	Vietnam	3039
12.	Nepal	2545
13.	Sri Lanka	2123

Source: FAO 2003, Published in Amader Dhan Boichitra (In Bengali), 2010, UBINIG, Dhaka, pp36

Agriculture becomes agribusiness:

The traditional agriculture of India continued over thousands of years has been fully organic and it has been one of the oldest and advanced forms of food production based on the principles of mixed cropping, crop rotation, use of region specific crop varieties, and incorporation of organic inputs along with Indigenous Technological Knowledge. Farmers, over the centuries maintained and nurtured entire food production system and crop bio-diversity as well. It has proved to be inherently sustainable over centuries along with its crop-diversity and indigenous technological knowledge (Howard 1940; reprint 2001, Shiva 2004).

American method of industrial agriculture in the name of green revolution (GR) during mid 60s ushered a novel era in the field of Indian agriculture by replacing all the region specific folk rice varieties in most of the areas and the related culture as well. The GR has replaced the cropping pattern of rice after-legume-rotation by introducing boro in place of rabi pulse crop which require very less amount of water and management. It was presumed that this western method was the only method of producing more grains within shortest possible time for combating the perceived threat of famine. However, the miracle High Yielding Varieties (HYV) seeds with chemical fertilizers and pesticides gave remarkable yield during the initial years of green revolution. A series of miracle HYV seeds followed, all of which were replaced with successive releases, mostly by the International Rice Research Institute of Philippines. Social scientists, scientists, politicians, economists and ecologists were critical of GR and opined that it would be a major blow to the unique stable agricultural production system.

With the passage of time, the consequences of GR with industrial chemicals have manifested. The apprehensions were proved to be true when the current industrial farming practices have depleted the fertility of the soil and 35% of the earth’s severely degraded lands have further been damaged by the highly mechanized chemical intensive agricultural practices. The importance of indigenous crop varieties has been ignored in the mainstream industrial agriculture. The craze for development in the media has never pointed out that the HYVs are in fact not high yielding if productivity is measured as yield per unit of water input (ton / k lit) and that folk varieties are more cost effective and ecologically sustainable than most HYVs (Shiva 1991; Deb 2004 and 2005).The GR has never estimated the importance of biodiversity (crop, fish, insects, mammals and birds) and disappearance of locally consumed food. Although the initial productivity of the crop increased but it showed a plateau or diminishing trend during the last two decades (Shiva 2002; Deb 2005; Kukal et al. 2008; Oonyu, 2011).

Food availability deficit:

The primary aim of the GR was to feed the teeming millions. Lack of food is rarely the reason people go hungry (Sundaram 2010). Even now, there is enough food in the world, but more people cannot afford to buy their required food. In India huge amount of food grain rot in the go-downs while a large section of people remain unfed. Prof Amarty Sen has proved that famines did not occur due lack of food and increase in food production does not necessarily guarantee the availability of food; rather it is the question of distribution and purchasing power of the people (Sen 1981)

Crop diversity-a neglected affair:

Agricultural biodiversity constitutes a significant portion of the global biodiversity that has direct use value. Indeed the existence of the entire economy is pivoted on the ago biodiversity of the country (Brown 1997).

But the importance of indigenous crop varieties has consistently been ignored in the mainstream industrial agriculture (IA) presuming that all the indigenous varieties were low yielder. The primary thrust of IA is on grain yield, not on other ecological functions, region specificity, qualities like taste, aroma, fineness, nutritive value of grain and straw. The necessity of evaluation and conservation of folk rice has received very scant attention by the formal agricultural institutes.

 A faint need was felt to document the characters of the crop varieties after an American company getting patents of Indian Basmati rice. During the regime of WTO- TRIPS, the folk crops are to be well documented in order to protect it from bio-piracy. Conceiving this, Govt. of India has enacted Biodiversity act 2002 and state biodiversity board has been formed in most states.  However, the Decade of Biodiversity (2011-2020) declared by the UN is a move towards awareness generation against biodiversity destruction. It is known that biodiversity signifies greater food security. India is one of the 12 mega-diverse countries in the world.

During the 99th Session of the Indian Science Congress recognized the Traditional Agricultural System of Koraput (Odisha, India) as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS) site. This region is famous for its rich agricultural biodiversity of global importance. The genetic diversity of Asian cultivated rice and has been considered as the centre of origin of aus ecotype of rice. The landraces or traditional varieties growing here are thought to be harboring dominant genes for biotic and abiotic stresses, aroma and palatability, and hold promise for their utilization in future crop improvement programme. Apart from Jeypore tract, (Koraput) in some areas of tropical Asia, the Batticoloa district of Sri Lanka and the forested areas of north Thailand, free-shattering grains from wild rice can still be witnessed today (Chang 1976b; Higham 1989).

Rice is under crisis:

Almost one third of the world population is depended on rice and it is one of the important staple crops in the world including India. It is being cultivated in more than 100 countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Caribbean Islands The most important staple crop of the world is in crisis. Recent publications of Green Peace-Future of Rice (Emerlito and Deb 2006) and Rice Industry in Crisis (2007) give an overview of the crisis. The region specific varieties are fast vanishing from the fields due to massive propaganda for HYV. Recently, it is further aggravated by aggressive marketing of Hybrid rice.  Hybrid rice would jeopardize the rice seed sovereignty of the farmers. The average grain yield of hybrid rice is not consistent and it varies from 3t–6t/ha. and it cannot be grown without heavy application of agrochemicals. The Indo US Knowledge Initiative of 2005 that focuses on further industrialization of agriculture is also a blow to our own rich biodiversity-based traditional agricultural system as opined by different experts across India.

Heir-loom rice diversity and farmers:

The rice diversity of India is very unique and the special grain qualities and morphological characters of rice have almost been forgotten with the   advent of high yielding varieties. The folk rice is quite synonymous to livelihood, culture, and rituals of the Indian farmers. Besides grain, straw is very useful by-product for cattle-feed and roofing material. Along with the application of fertilizers, HYVs are meant for giving grain output only. Farmers have also been lured by the initial high grain yields but it declines with the passage of time despite heavy application of agro-chemicals. Now a section of farmers, institutional scientists, and workers have realized the colossal loss crop biodiversity and felt the necessity of crop conservation. Meanwhile, the demand for folk rice varieties among the progressive farmers are on the rise.     

As the cost of production of folk varieties under organic management is low, fetches more profit, maintains soil health and gives sustainable yield. Grain yield of Kerala Sundari, Baghurupi, Bangla Patnai, Kesab Sal and Baurani vary from 5-6 ton/ha. in different edapho-climatological conditions. Agricultural Training Centre, Fulia has conducted four year long extensive research on comparative study of chemical and organic nutrient management of rice during kharif season and found that the folk variety Kerala Sundari under organic management gave more yield than chemically grown MTU 7029 and the scented variety Radhatilak fetches more price than non-scented varieties (Paul et al 2011). It was also observed that low available phosphate and potash does not hamper the folk rice growth and organic plots had more saprozoic nematodes and CFUs (Colony forming units) of bacteria and fungi (Paul 2011).

After devastating AILA in Sundarban of 2009, farmers of Jogeshgunj area of Hingalgunj block have taken up true salt tolerant varieties like Talmugur, Hogla, Lalgetu, Sadagetu etc. Meanwhile, salt tolerant varieties like Matla and Hamiltan are no longer found in those areas and not even in the nearby institutions and farms. Prior to AILA they used to grow modern salt tolerant varieties like Lunishree and other HYVs like CR, 1009.1017, 1018.SR 26B. The traditional salt tolerant varieties can cope up with the prevailing saline and deep water condition. After the breach of river bank during AILA, the field became more salty and the farmers need to use region specific folk rice varieties which has natural resistant to insect pest and diseases. Seeds of folk varieties can be continued for years together (unlike HYVs) even for 1000 years (for e.g. Basmati rice) provided the seed conservation technique is maintained. The unique characters of folk rice are not included in the syllabus of Agronomy in the agricultural universities of India. Within few years, these precious varieties would be vanished if proper care for conservation is not taken up and obviously no scientist in the world would bring back them.

Table 4. A representative list of folk rice varieties having unique characters

Sl. No.	Unique characters		Folk Varieties
1.	Tolerate drought and high temperature of Bankura and Purulia ,grown generally during pre-kharif		Kelas, Asnaliya, Bhutmuri
2.	Aus varieties grown during pre-kharif		Shatika, Kelas, Bansgajal, Bhutmuri
3.	Tolerate salinity in Sundarban area		Matla*, Talmugur, Hogla, Kantarangi, Nona bokra, Lalgetu, Sada getu
4	Rice for mixed cropping- seeds of two varieties are mixed up and broadcasted in low lying areas during early Jaisthya ( May – June)		Birpana, Benajhupi(166 days) harvested on month apart
5.	Cold tolerant rice in Darjeeling district		Himal
6.	Rice for fish cum paddy culture in low lying sali land  during kharif season-a lot of varieties		Jabra, Koijuri, Paniklas, Pantaras, Lalkalam, Meghi, Dorangi
7.	Long and bold grain		Kabirajsal, Lalbahal, Moulo,Patnai
8.	Short and bold grain		Dorangi, Kalomota, Talmugur , Bahurupi, Kerala Sundari
9.	Scented- long grain		Basmati, Dehradun, Karnal local
10.	Scented- medium long		Dehradun gandheswari, Kalonunia
11.	Scented –short and bold		Lilabati, Kaminibhog, Kanakchur, Tulsa, Tulsimukul,Mohonbhog
12.	Scented –short and small, mainly used as offerings to God/Goddess. Used for making Payes and other sweets.		Radhatilak,Gobindobhog,Tulaipanji, Lalbadshabhog,Kataribhog, Dudheswar, Kalojira.
13.	Fine- long grain; mainly used for guests		Sitasal, Chamarmani, Patnai Banskhati,Rupsal, Nagra sal, Nagra patnai,Lalkamini,Lalsaroo,Jhingasal
14.	Longest rice , longer than Basmati grain		Dokra dekhri ( Chatisgarh) 14 mm long
15.	Non lodging habit – all folk varieties necessarily mean lodging habit. HYVs also lodge sometimes due to heavy N fertilization or heavy rain after dough stage.		Pari, Para, Gheos, Bahurupi, Boubhog, Cheena pakri, Lalsita,
16.	Panicle bears panicle in cluster.		Khejurchri, Narkelchari, Thubi, Hatidhan
17.	Withstand deep water of 18 feet		Laksmi dighal, Panidhan.
18.	Tolerate submergence ;1-1.5 ft  water above		Jaljabra, Sadajabra, Panidhan, Lakshidighal, Panikalas
19.	Rice grows along with the rising water level		Laljabra, Sadajabra, Bajal,Jalkamini, Harmanona
20.	Deep water paddy  in 3ft water, seedlings along with a mud ball thrown in the low lying areas from small boat		Kumragore, Laljabra, Sadajabra, Bajal, Tilakkachari, Bakui,Lalkalam
21.	Deep water boro paddy- no rice is grown  during kharif due to water		Kaloboro- fish cam paddy culture
22.	Boro paddy -partial photo insensitive		Guligati*,Lalboro, Sadaboro, Kaloboro, Lathisal,Dudheswar,
23.	Initially drought tolerant and later  flood tolerant		Gamrah in Bastar district of Bihar
24.	Popped rice( muri)		Marichsal, Moulo, Kalomota,Hamai, Kabirajsal, Dharial,Kalam,Bhutia
25.	Flattened rice ( chire)		Patnai, Borni, Bankchur, Jhingasal, Kalma, Agniban,
26.	Puffed rice		Moulo, Paniduba, Balam, Patnai, Binni(Bangladesh),Motadhusari, Kanakchur (scented), Laksmichur.
27.		Gruel-rice ( fena bhat)		All the folk rice vars. having red kernel
28.		Water-soaked rice ( Panta)		Kaoijhuri, Bhurisal, Panikalas
29.		Roti rice- flour is used for making roti		Dampha ( Maharastra)
30.		Double grained-two  kernels		Jugal / Ram- Balaram / Gour –Netai
31.		Triple grained – three kernels		Sateen
32.		Tasty bold rice		Bhurisal, Koijhuri,Kaminibhog, Kabirajsal,Agniban,Balamsal
33.		Tasty fine rice		Chamarmani, Jhingasal, Sitasal, Dudheswar,Ramsal,Kataribhog, Banskthai, Dehradun gandheswari
34.		No boiling rice -3 types found in Assam		Komol ( Aghanibora)
35.		Low boiling time		All scented rice, Tulaipanji, Dudheswar
36.		Khichuri (boiling of rice and pulse with spices) rice, it splits longitudinally after cooking, scented		Bansphul (In Bangladesh)
37.		Medicinal rice- red and black rice containing vit B and iron  and others Rice with Camphor smell *		Red rice –Agniban, Dwrakasal, Bhurisal,Shatia, Kutepatnai, Nivara ( Kerala), Tenduphul,  Kabirajsal, Lohagorah, Kalabhat( Black)
38.		Red rice – red seed coat		Agniban, Dwrakasal,  Bhurisal, Shatia, Kutepatnai, Nivara( Kerala)
39.		Early satiety rice, less rice is required used for once a day- meal		Bhutmuri, Sadamota, Tilakkachari
40.		High yield folk rice, gives grain yield -4.2-5.4 t / ha ; comparable with HYVs.		Kerala Sundari, Bahurupi, Bakulphul,  Jhuli, Patnai, Kesabsal, Raban sal, Sabita
41.		Short duration variety( Days)-seed to seed		Shatia(75),Dehradun Gandheswari (120) Pari( 85),Tulsa (110), Kelas(110), Kerala Sundari( 130)
42.		Long duration variety, more than 160 days		Kajaldekhi( 163).Jata leta, Meghi(165)   Sal(172), Jalkamini(160),  Lalpatnai(165)
43.		Rice with purple leaf		Khara ( Orissa)
44.		Elongated -glume encircling the seed		Ramigelli

Source: After Deb (2005), Biodiversity Conservation Farm, ATC, Fulia and other sources,                                                                                                                 * Not found in farmers’ fields.

These unique characters are not found in any of the HYVs as these traits are mostly polygenic in nature and it cannot be inserted in the breeding programme. Even after insertion, the characters are not stable for obvious reasons. Salt tolerant HYVs, deep water HYVs and scented HYVs etc are oxymoron.

Conservation effort and Farmers Acceptance:

The region specific high yielding folk rice varieties are not propagated as it does not involve any seed replacement (hence no seed business prosperity), fertilizers and pesticides and herbicides (hence no industrial growth). While some of the folk varieties can outperform the modern varieties in terms of grain yield and pest resistance properties. Mainstream agricultural research does not promote any of them so modern biotech business and agro-chemical industries prosper. The availability of folk varieties is severely limited. Barring a few individual efforts in Govt farms, no appreciable governmental infrastructure has yet been geared to safeguard and distribute heirloom seeds for resource poor farmers. Farmers are beginning to understand the fallacy of high grain yield of HYVs and they have begun to choose folk rice varieties which would usher in a new hope for the future of the State's agriculture. 

            The VRIHI of Bankura has started the pioneering work on folk rice conservation and characterization work in 1997 and at present, it maintains more than 900 folk rice varieties at Raygada district of Odisha (www.cintdis/basudha.org). This is the largest nongovernmental seed exchange bank in east India. The Agricultural Training Centre of Fulia has supplied folk rice varieties to Rice Research Station, Chinsurah, other Govt farms, and the farmers across the state.  Its Biodiversity Conservation Farm is maintaining (300 varieties) and distributing folk rice varieties among the farmers. During 2009, the centre distributed 45 folk rice varieties among 130 farmers. During 2013, the centre distributed 126 varieties among 80 farmers, research scholars across the state setting a new record among the state run farms of India. No Govt. farm has ever distributed so many folk varieties in a year. This apart, several farmers, civil societies are also engaged in conservation of folk rice varieties in order to ensure future food security and to have sustainable yield. Many farmers become interested to grow the folk varieties as the cost of cultivation of HYV escalates with declining trend in grain yield. During 2010, farmers of Ausgram Block of Burdwan district have grown more than 30 ha of folk varieties like Kerala Sundari and Bahurupi by replacing the popular HYV MTU 7029. More than 165 folk varieties are being maintained Richaria Conservation Centre at Avirampur village of Ausgram II block, Burdwan district. Farmers under Paschim Sridhar Kathi Unnayn Sanghaya of Jogeshgunj area of Hingalgung Block, N 24 Parganas are conserving, distributing and cultivating more than 300 folk rice varieties. In 2013, the folk variety Bahurupi yielding 5-6 ton/ha has covered a substantial area of 60 ha in the remotest part of West Bengal.

 

                                                    

                                                  

                                                       Spreading of rice

 

      

          Panicles of Bahurupi                   Different rice grains               Pora Binni and Sada Binni

      Komol -No boiling Rice                Nivra – medicinal rice                             Khara

                                                                                               

 

                                                                                                             

Red Clum of Bhutia                                                   Folk Rice conservation at ATC Fulia

 

                       Profuse Tillers                                       Comparison between MTU 7029 and folk rice

     Table  5. Yield of some folk rice varieties under organic management   at ATC Fulia (Averages of three years)

The varieties were sown following single plant transplanting method. All the varieties did not respond equally in each year. Tillering habit of the varieties varied and it were not equal for all the years.   The average soil status were as follows- pH-7.1, OC % 0.6, P₂O₅ 44 kg / ha, K₂O 98 kg / ha   with available micronutrients and 670 saprozoic nematode in 200 cc of soil. Apparent low status of nutrient does not affect the yield of folk rice as the soil is living with soil microbes. Modern varieties under organic management system did not give desired yield but the farmers of Burdwan district are getting an average of 4000kg / ha. under chemically managed plots. Hills were selected randomly and 25 hills were selected out of each plot of varieties and yield parameters were determined.

 However, the average grain and straw yield of folk varieties are better in farmers’ filed under organically managed plots in S and N 24 Parganas,  Hoogly  and  Burdwan districts. But the grain yield was not same for all the years. The grain yield of most of the varieties were equal to 4000 kg / ha and it is above the state level average of 3 t / ha.

References

"African Rice". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains.  National Academies Press. National       Research Council (February 14,1996). ISBN 978-0-309-04990-0. Retrieved July 18,   2008.

Wikipedia, 2011,"Rice's Origins Point to China, Genome Researchers Conclude". en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oryza sativa, Science News line. Retrieved 13 December 2011.

Abbasi, A. A., 2001, Dimensions of human cultures in central India, Sarup and Sons, New Delhi

Andrus, J. R., and A. F. Mohammed. 1958,  The economy of Pakistan. Oxford.

Bertin, J., J. Hermardinquer, M. Keul, et al. 1971, Atlas of food crops. Paris.

Bhattacharya, K. R. 1985, Parboiling of rice. In Rice: Chemistry and technology, ed. B. O.            Juliano, 289—348. St. Paul, Minn.

Borromeo Emerlito and Deb Debal 2006, Future of Rice, Green Peace, October 2006, Green Peace

International, Bangalore, India

Brown, Lester R, 1997, How environmental deterioration disrupt economic progress , World        Watch Institute, Washington DC

Candolle, A. de. 1884, Origin of cultivated plants (1886 English translation). New York.

Chang, T. T, 1976, The origin, evolution, cultivation, dissemination, and divergence of Asian and  African rices. Euphytica 25: 425—45.  (in the Cambridge World History of Food- Rice www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/rice.htm

Chang, T. T., 1987, The impact of rice in human civilization and population expansion.      Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 12: 63—9.

Darby,HC "The face of Europe on the eve of the great discoveries", in The New Cambridge          Modern History, vol. 1, 19

Deb, Debal, 2001, From Arisi to Rice  in  An Ecological History of Food and Farming in India,

            Shiva Vandana and R H Bhar 2001, Vol I, RFSTE/ NAVDANYA .New Delhi, 52

Deb Debal, 2004, Industrial Vs Ecological Agriculture Navdanya/RFSTE New Delhi

Deb, Debal, 2005, Seeds of tradition , seeds of future, folk rice varieties of Eastern India, RFSTE, New Delhi

Deb, Debal, 2004, Industrial Vs Ecological Agriculture, RFSTE, New Delhi

Garris et al.; Tai, TH; Coburn, J; Kresovich, S; McCouch, S (2004). "Genetic structure and                        diversity in Oryza sativa L.". Genetics 169 (3): 1631–8. doi: 10.1534/ genetics. 104.  035642. PMC 1449546. PMID 15654106.

Glaszmann J. C, 1987, Isozymes and classification of Asian rice varieties, Theor Appl Genet 9 Springer-Verlag,(1987) 74:21-30 (The International Rice Research Institute, P.O. Box 933,  Manila, Philippines)

 Gopalan , C.,  Rama Sastri, B. V., Balasubramanian, S. C.1971, National Institute of Nutrition,

Indian Council of Medical Research, Indian Council of Medical Research Publication, pp 60-114

 

GRAIN, 15 January 2009, Nerica - another trap for small farmers in Africa

Grist, D. H. 1975. Rice.  Fifth edition. Prentice Hall Press, London., 

Harris, David R. 1996, The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia.            Psychology Press. p. 565. ISBN 1857285387.

Higham, C. F. W. 1989. Rice cultivation and the growth of Southeast Asian civilization.   Endeavour 13: 82—8

Ho, P. T. 1956. Early ripening rice in Chinese history. Economic History Review 9: 200—18.in 

in the Cambridge World History of Food- Rice

Howard, Albert, 1940 and 2001, An Agricultural Testament of India, Other India Press, Goa.

James, C., and D. McCaskill. 1983, Rice in the American diet. Cereal Foods World 28: 667—9.

Juliano, B. O. 1985a. Production and utilization of rice. In Rice: Chemistry and technology, ed.    B. O. Juliano, 1—16. St. Paul, Minn. In The Cambridge World History of Food, 2000,           Eds Kenneth F. Kiple and  Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, Cambridge University Press.

Juliano, B. O., and D. B. Bechtel. 1985, The rice grain and its gross composition. In Rice: Chemistry and technology, ed. B. O. Juliano, 17—57. St. Paul, Minn. 

Kiple and Ornelas 2000, The Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge University Press

Kukal S.S., Singh, Yadvinder ., Yadav, Sudhir., Humphreys, E., Kaur, Amanpreet , and Thaman, S. 2008, Why grain yield of transplanted rice on permanent raised beds declines with time?         Elsevier, Soil & Tillage Research 99 (2008) 261–267

Lu, J. J. and T. T. Chang. 1980. Rice in its temporal and spatial perspectives. In Rice: Production and utilization, ed. B Harlan, J.R. 1995, The Tropical African Cereals, in T. Shaw, P. Sinclair, B. Andah, & A. Okpoko (eds.), The Archaeology of Africa: Food, metals and towns. London: Routledge.. S. Luh, 1—74. Westport, Conn.

Molina J, Sikora M, Garud N, Flowers J M, Rubinstein S, Reynolds A, Huang P, Jackson S, Schaal BA, Bustamante CD, Boyko AR, Purugganan MD, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011,

"Molecular evidence for a single evolutionary origin of domesticated rice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (20): 8351–8356. doi:10.1073/pnas.1104686108.

NBPGR, 2007-08, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resource, Annual Report, ICAR, New

Delhi.

Nesbitt., Mark, St John Simpson and Ingvar Svanberg History of Rice in Western and Central Asia (kent.academia.edu/MarkNesbitt/.../History_of_rice_in_western_and)

Oonyu,  Joseph, 2011, Upland rice growing: A potential solution to declining  crop yields and

the degradation of the Doho wetlands, Butaleja district-Uganda African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 6(12), pp. 2774-2783, 18 June, 2011 ,Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJAR

Paul Anupam,  Sengupta C,  Kabi M C, Mazumder D and M Ghosh, 2011, Comparative  study

on chemical and organic nutrient management of rice during kharif season in Nadia district of West Bengal, Published in the Proceedings of International Symposium on System Intensification Towards Food & Environmental Security, 24-27 February, 2011 at Farmers’ Training Centre, Lake Hall, BCKV, Kalyani WB, India, pp 117 (http://cwssbckv.org).

Paul, Anupam, 2011, Comparative Study of Chemical and Organic Input for for Sustainable

Production of Folk and Modern Varieties of Rice, Ph D Thesis, Department of Botany, University of Kalyani,

Randhawa, M. S. 1980. A History of Agriculture in India, Vol. 1. New Delhi.

Rice Industry in crisis, Green Peace, January 2007, Green Peace International, The Netherlands

Science Daily (May 21, 2010) Endangered African Rice Varieties Gain Elite Status

Sen, Amartya, 1981, Poverty and famines, An essay on entitlement and deprivation, Oxford, Clarendren Press, London

Sharma, G. R., V. D. Misra, D. Mandal, et al. 1980. Beginnings of agriculture. Allahabad, India

Shiva Vandana 1991, The Violence of the Green Revolution Pen nag, Third World Network, Ma. Shiva, Vandana, 2002, Corporate hijack of agriculture, Navdhanya, New Delhi layasia

Sundaram, K Jumo (2010) Lessons from the 2008 world food crisis, Economic and political weekly, Mumbai, pp 35-40.

UBINIG , 2010, Amader Dahan Baichitra, Naya Krishi Andolon Ekti Parthamik Tathychitra ( in Bengali), Dhaka

Vaughan DA, Lu BRB, Tomooka N (2008) "The evolving story of rice evolution". Plant Science 174 (4): 394–408. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.01.016. 

Vaughan DA, Morishima H (2003) Biosystematics of the genus Oryza. Chapter 1.2. In: CW. Smith RH Dilday, eds. Rice. Origin, History, Technology, and Production. John Wiley and Sons Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey pp 27-65.    

Zohary, Daneil and Hopf, Maria, 2000, Domestication of Plants in the Old World, third edition.  Oxford University Press, London, pp 91.