Proceedings of National seminar on ISBN:
978-93-80663-98-2
Recent advances in rice genomics and biotechnology,
Organised by Department of Biotechnology,
Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, March 23-24, 2013
Folk Rice Biodiversity: Cultivation
and Culture
Anupam
Paul*
Rice –the word:
Asian
rice (Oryza sativa) got its name from the Tamil word arisi. It
reached the shore of Africa around 300 BC by the Javanese, Malayan and Indian
Soldiers as well as through Arab traders (Deb 2001). Alexander the Great took
Indian rice during his invasion to India during 327 BC. It was believed that
Aristotle was the first European scientist to record rice as oryzon
which was derived from the Greek word oruza and this word has been the
source of all European languages for rice (reis-Welsh, Reis-Ger, ryžiai-, Lith, ryz-Pol, rijst-Dutch,
orez-Romanian, ris–French, arroz–Spanish, Oriza-
Latin). Arab traders called rice al-ruz which changed into arroz
in Spanish.
The oldest name of rice in Sanskrit is vrihi.
The clear relationship between Iranian berenj, Turkish pirinç and Sanskrit vrihi are consistent with the westward spread of rice and its cultivation from India to Iran and then Turkey. It is also opined that the word paddy came from Malay word padi
meaning un-husked rice.
Other words for rice grain in Uzbek
and Uighur are sholi and shali respectively and are also Iranian
loan words (shal). Iranian influence has been very strong in Central Asia since
antiquity and continued up to modern times, especially among the farmers in the
oases. In Bengali Sali land means
low-lying (kharif) rice field and perhaps the Bengali names of rice
varieties that are grown in this type of land ends with Sal like Kabiraj
sal, Jhinga sal, Rupsal, etc. Sal is pronounced as Sayl in
Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author
Assistant
Director of Agriculture (Trg), Agricultural Training Centre, Fulia, Nadia, W B,
Email: anupampaul@gmail.com
Published by Department of
Biotechnology, Viswa-Bharati University and PSB, Santiniketan, West Bengal, India 2014
In China and in Japan the word for Rice is the same word for food.
Instead of saying "How are you?" a typical greeting in Chinese is
"Have you had your rice today”? In Japan the grains of rice are referred
to as "little Buddha" to encourage small children to eat. It
is believed that rice spread through Buddhism in the East Asian Countries.
Area:
Rice
is a highly adaptable crop. In can be grown 2750 meter above the sea level in
Nepal, Bhutan and 3 meter below the sea level in Wayanad in Kerala. The name Wayanad has been derived from the
expression 'Vayal nadu' - the village of paddy fields.
Today, the majority of all rice produced
comes from China, India, Indinesia Pakistan, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thiland, Mayanmar
Philippines, and Japan. Asian
farmers still account for 92% of the world's total rice
production.
Between a quarter and a third of the world’s tapped freshwater resources have already been developed to irrigate rice, the staple food for 3 billion people. More than 90% of the world’s rice is produced and consumed in Asia, where rice is a political commodity and where millennia- old practices of growing rice have resulted in specific rice cultures. These cultures need a collective, community-based approach to decision making about the investments in rice fields and about their operation and maintenance. Women participate in various degrees in the cultivation of rice and often have specific tasks such as transplanting, weeding, or harvesting. In Central and West Africa, women constitute the majority of upland rice farmers. Increasing water scarcity and technological response options affect women in different ways.
Nutrition:
On
the basis of mean grain yield, rice crops produce more food energy and protein
supply per hectare than wheat and maize. Hence, rice can support more people
per unit of land than the two other staples. It is, therefore, not surprising
to find a close relationship in human history between an expansion in rice
cultivation and a rapid rise in population growth (Chang 1987).
Rice is an excellent food source, low in fat
and high in starchy carbohydrate. Rice is packed full of vitamins and minerals
and provides an excellent source of vitamin E, B vitamins (thiamine, niacin)
and potassium. Allergic reactions to rice are rare in the western world, and
rice can be an invaluable alternative source of carbohydrate and energy for
anyone allergic to gluten or wheat. Rice has been found to be very easy to
digest. It is low in fat, low in cholesterol, high in starch, and has a high
nutritional content. Rice is also an excellent source of energy.
Table 1. Comparison of
major nutrients of rice and other cereals in 100 g
Nutritive value
of Indian Foods, by Gopalan et al. (1971), Indian Council of Medical
Research Publication, pp.60-114
Another factor
in keeping beriberi at bay has been the technique of parboiling rough rice.
Rice, which is low in sodium and fat and is free of cholesterol, serves as an
aid in treating hypertension. It is also free from allergens and now widely used
in baby foods (James and McCaskill 1983).
Rice starch can also serve as a substitute for glucose in oral
rehydration solution for infants suffering from diarrhea (Juliano 1985). The
protein quality of rice (66 percent) ranks only below that of oats (68 percent)
and surpasses that of whole wheat (53 percent) and of corn (49 percent).
Milling of brown rice into white rice results in a nearly 50 percent loss of
the vitamin B complex and iron and washing of milled rice prior to cooking
further reduces the water-soluble vitamin content. However, the amino acids,
especially lysine are less affected by the milling process (Juliano and Bechtel
1985).
Rice
is also used as medicine in same part of the world. Black rice is rich in
antioxidants and vitamins grown in Japan and China. In India, Kalabhat, Burma
Black and Manipuri Black rice are the examples of black rice varieties. Rice
varieties with red seed coat were very popular in India due to its nutritional
qualities. In Bengal, Kabirajsal is believed to be a medicinal rice as the Ayurvedic doctors used to prescribe it
after prolong illness. Nivara of Kerala is used for healing the neuralgic pain
and to prevent cough and cold during monsoon period. Traditionally, many rice
varieties have been used to cure various ailments such as kidney stones, heart
diseases and diabetes. Some of the prominent medicinal rice varieties include
Karibatha, Kalame, Karikalave, Doddabaira nellu, Kari Gajivili and Sannakki.
The ‘Dia anna’ a short for ‘rice for diabetics’, an indigenous rice variety
from Nagarkoil in Tamil Nadu, has turned out to be a big hit among the
varieties. The rice is rich in fiber, minerals and Vitamin B and E. Originally
known as ‘Thuruvai Kalangi’, this fiber-rich rice digests slowly and releases
sugar into the blood at slower pace than normal rice. A Bangalore Based NGO, Sahaja
Samrudha organized a Red Rice Fair in Bangalore on 15th May 2011 and since
then they are instrumental in popularizing the medicinal rice.
Table
2. Nutritional value of medicinal rice in 100 g
|
Sl. No.
|
Variety
|
Energy
(cal.)
|
Protein
(%)
|
Fat
(%)
|
Carbone
(%)
|
Crude
Fiber
( %)
|
Ca
(mg)
|
Fe
(mg)
|
Phosphorus
(%)
|
|
1.
|
Ambe
mohor
|
350.24
|
6.47
|
1.0
|
78.84
|
0.97
|
0.29
|
0.8
|
0.31
|
|
2.
|
Doddabaryra-nellu
|
352.9
|
7.04
|
2.18
|
76.28
|
1.07
|
0.20
|
0.8
|
0.23
|
|
3.
|
Navara
|
364.46
|
8.12
|
2.14
|
78.18
|
1.05
|
0.42
|
1.2
|
0.48
|
|
4.
|
Kagisali
|
367.05
|
6.67
|
1.89
|
80.84
|
0.66
|
0.26
|
0.6
|
0.24
|
|
5.
|
Karikalave
|
350.85
|
5.30
|
0.29
|
81.76
|
0.76
|
0.30
|
0.7
|
0.39
|
|
6.
|
Ankura
sona
(Polished Hy rice)
|
363.15
|
5.86
|
0.15
|
84.59
|
0.16
|
0.10
|
0.2
|
0.09
|
Source: Sahaja Samrudha Organic
Producer Company Limited. Bangalore, 2011
Parboiled
rice is popular among the people of Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka, and parts of West Africa and amounts to nearly one-fifth of the worlds
rice consumed (Bhattacharya 1985). People of Eastern part of India use
parboiled rice while the rest of states of India prefer raw rice. With the
passage of time, rice has been the main staple food of the eastern and north
eastern states.
Rice
gruel is a favorite dish of Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha. Gruel of red rice
is fed to the pregnant and lactating mother as it is supposed to contain iron
and Vitamin B complex. The gruel of black rice is obviously black containing
rich nutrition. Boiled rice is soaked in water and kept overnight. Most of
water is drained and this Panta it is eaten with onion, chili, and curry
during the summer months. Some varieties were specially cultivated for Panta
making. In Assam, Komol rice soaked in cold water for 2-3 hours for making cooked
rice without boiling. It is also eaten like Panata or with curd and
molasses.
Binni
is a group of glutinous rice (sticky rice) grown mostly in Netrokona, Chittagong
of Bangladesh. There were reports of 14 types of Binni rice. Low amylose
rice cooks moist and sticky. Intermediate amylose rice is preferred in most
rice growing areas of the word. Rice is boiled in one side-open bamboo stump
having 1.5-2.2 inch diameters along with coconut shreds and ripe banana and
eaten as breakfast Chittagong area. It is also popular in North Eastern states
like Arunachal Pradesh. People claim that it induces sleep. It was also used as
starching agent for handloom cotton saris in Tangail district of
Bangladesh. Puffed rice is kneaded with water and lime and smeared over the
newly made cotton sari and Binni was very suitable for this purpose. The
puffed rice of Binni is also of great demand because of its taste. The
scented puffed rice of Kanakchur of S 24 Parganas of West Bengal was used for
making famous sweet Joynagarer moya (puffed rice is made with light
molasses of made of date palm juice during the winter months).
Origin
and Classification:
There are some opinions on the evolution
and origin of present cultivated rice. It is considered that the genus Oryza
belongs to the family Poaceae, consists of two cultivated species
groups having chromosome no 2n= 24 and 21 wild species with 9 tetraploids sp
having 2n= 48. The main cultivated sp. is Oryza sativa, the Asian rice
and Oryza glaberrima, the African rice. The possible
immediate progenitor of African rice is Oryza breviligulata (annual) and
it came from Oryza longistaminata and O. barthii (Vaughan
and Morishima 2003). The Asian rice was originated from wild annual Oryza
nivara and it came from perennial Oryza rufipogon. The cultivated
species of Oryza may be classified as semi-aquatic plants, although
extreme variants are grown not only in deep water (up to 5 meters) but also on
dry land). Oryza sativa contains two major subspecies: the sticky,
short-grained japonica or sinica variety (temperate and tropical),
and the non-sticky, long and short-grained indica variety.
A third subspecies, which is
broad-grained and thrives under tropical conditions, is now known as tropical
japonica. Examples of this variety include the medium grain “Tinawon” and
“Unoy” cultivars, which are grown in the high-elevation rice terraces of the
Cordillera Mountains of northern Luzon, Philippines. Rice is known to a variety of colours, including: white, brown, black, purple, and
red. Though Oryza sativa is native to tropical and subtropical
southern Asia, it is being grown all over the world.
Glaszmann (1987) sorted Oryza sativa
into six groups: japonica, aromatic, indica, aus (from Bengal), rayada
(floating
rice of Bangladesh), and ashina (floating rice of India). Garris et
al. (2004) sorted Oryza
sativa into five groups; temperate japonica, tropical japonica and aromatic
comprise the japonica varieties, while indica and aus comprise
the indica varieties.
Archaeological Evidences:
There
are different opinions on the place of origin of cultivated Asian rice, Oryza
sativa. Earlier it was believed that India was the
origin of Asian rice, while the discovery in Hemudu sites located at 29º 50´N. Lat (Luo-jia-jiao of Zhejiang Province
and Pen-tou-shan of Hunan Province) of East
China during 1970s
proved that rice was over 3000 years older than that discovered in India (Wikipedia
2011). The well-preserved rice, including indica rice and japonica rice,
was proved to be cultivated rice. Rice cultivation was slowly domesticated over
the course of two or three millennia in the Lower Yangtze region of Zhejiang,
China between 6,900 and 6,600 years ago. In 2011, it has provided the strongest
evidence yet that there is only one single origin of domesticated rice, in the Yangtze
Valley of China (Molina et al. 2011) There was a rapid expansion
of rice cultivation into across Southeast Asia and westwards across India and
Nepal (Harris 1996).
The earliest remains of rice in the Indian
Subcontinent was found in the Indo-Gangetic plains dated
from 7000–6000 BC though widely accepted time for initiation of rice cultivation was
around 3000–2500 BC belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization.
One of the oldest
evidences from India comes from Koldihwa, U P, where rice grains were embedded
in earthen potsherds and rice husks discovered in ancient cow dung. The age of
the Chalcolithic levels was estimated between 6570 and 4530 B C ( Sharma et
al. 1980), but the actual
age of the rice remains may be as recent as 1500 B.C. (Chang 1987). Another old
grain sample came from Mohenjodaro of Pakistan and dates from about 2500 B.C.
(Andrus and Mohammed 1958). Rice cultivation probably began in the upper and
middle Ganges between 2000 and 1500 B.C. (Candolle 1884). It expanded quickly
after irrigation works spread from Odisha State to the adjoining areas of
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in the Iron Age around 300 B.C. (Randhawa
1980)
In fact, rice cultivation may have reached India
by 4000 BC and may have originated somewhere in south-east Asia as early as
7000 BC. It was also found in the first phase of excavation of Pandu Rajar
Dhibi (After Mahabharat’s King Pandu) dates
back to 2100–1400 BC. While it was the first
Chalcolithic or Copper Age site to be discovered, a number of other
sites have been discovered in an area spread over the districts of Birbhum,
Bardhaman, Bankura, Midnapore and interspersed by rivers like Brahmani,
Mayurakshi, Kopai, Ajoy, Kunur ,Damodar, Darkeswar, Shialbati and Rupanarayan. Pandu Raiar Dhibi reveals the non-Aryan
origin of the Bengalis. The excavation at Pandu Rajar Dhibi has provided
evidence for the gradual growth of a Chalcolithic
culture and its displacement by iron-using people. Paddy rice charcoal
is found at Mahishadala (now in Purba Medinipore district), radio carbon dates
it to 1380–855 B.C. (Abbasi 2001).
The second stage there, however, shows
potters' wheel and looks related to the culture at Chirand of Saran district of
Bihar. They cultivated rice, wheat, barley, and lentils like green gram and
lentil; and lived in straw huts, had precious stones like chalcedony and agate,
and had glazed pottery made on wheels. Zohary and Hopf
(2000) reported that O. sativa was recovered from a grave at Susa in
Iran (dated back to 1st century AD), at one end of the ancient world indicating another
domestication of rice in South Asia.
In Indonesia, evidence
of wild Oryza was found on the island of
Sulawesi dates from 3000 BCE. The evidence for the earliest cultivation,
however, comes from eighth century stone inscriptions from Java, which show
kings levied taxes in rice. Rice production in Indonesian history is linked to
the development of iron tools and the domestication of water buffalo for
cultivation of fields and manuring. Once covered in dense forest, much of the
Indonesian landscape has been gradually cleared for permanent fields and
settlements as rice cultivation developed over the last fifteen hundred years.
Spreading of Rice:
After 15th century, rice spread throughout
Italy and then France, later propagating to all the continents during the age
of European exploration. The Moors brought
Asian rice to the Iberian Peninsula in
the 10th century. Records indicated it was grown in Valencia and Majorca. In
Majorca, rice cultivation seems to have stopped after the Christian conquest,
although historians are not certain (Vaughan et
al. 2008).
Muslims also brought rice
to Sicily. Rice cultivation is well documented further north in Mesopotamia, in Cilicia, the Jordan and Nile
valleys, the southern shores of the Caspian, and north-central Anatolia, all
before 1500. The two phase model of rice establishment, with a first phase in
southern Mesopotamia starting in the period 400 BC-100 AD, and a second phase
linked to the expansion of Islam after 1000 AD, seems reasonable.
The rice grown in Central Asia belongs mainly to the sub-species japonica and many cultivars still exist. The UN General Assembly’s declaration of the International Year of the Rice in 2004 was
also sponsored by Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, together with many of the large rice producing countries in Africa, Asia and America signifying the importance given to the rice crop in the national economies of Central Asian countries (Nesbit et al. 2010).
African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years.
Between 1500 and 800 BC, Oryza glaberrima
propagated from its original centre, the Niger River Delta, and extended to Senegal.
However, it never developed far from its original region. Its cultivation even
declined in favor of the Asian sp. This wild rice grows in sub-Saharan Africa, and is found in savanna woodland. Oryza
barthii grows in deep water, seasonally flooded land, stagnant water,
and slowly flowing water or pools; it prefers clay or black cotton soils, and
is found in open habitats. It is the progenitor of cultivated African
rice, O. glaberrima. (African Rice 1996).
Until
the recent introduction of Asian rice, African rice (Oryza glaberrima)
has been an important staple for peoples across much of West Africa. According to Science Daily (May 21, 2010) the African rice--known
scientifically as Oryza glaberrima
was domesticated about 3,500 years ago in West Africa, where it thrived
for centuries. But today it is grown only in scattered pockets nearing the
extinction. Most African rice farmers have abandoned their native varieties for
high-yielding Asian rice (O. sativa), which was introduced to the
continent through European trade with Asia via Africa about 450 years ago.
African rice generally yields better than Asian rice under harsh conditions,
where pests and other stresses are intense. Had the problems of grain
shattering and lodging been overcome, it could have given a quite acceptable
yield of 5-6 tons per hectare in more favorable, rain-fed lowland environments.
Nerica (New Rice for Africa) rice varieties, a cross between African and
Asian rice, are being hailed as a “miracle crop” that can bring Africa its
long-promised green revolution in rice. But outside the laboratories, Nerica
is not living up to the hype (Grain 2009).
This species possibly brought to the African
continent by Arabs coming from the east coast between
the 6th and 11th centuries CE. It helped Africa conquer
its famine of 1203 (African rice 1996). In 1694, rice arrived in South
Carolina, probably originating from Madagascar. Rice cultivation began in
California during the California Gold Rush, when an estimated 40,000 Chinese
labourers immigrated to the state and grew small amounts of the grain for their
own consumption. It was introduced into Hawaii by Chinese immigrants between 1853 and 1862, but it did not
thrive as an agro-industry in competition with sugarcane and pineapple (Lu and
Chang 1980).
Experimental
planting of rice in Australia took place in New South Wales in 1892, although
other introductions into the warmer areas of Queensland and the Northern
Territories could have come earlier. Commercial planting in New South Wales
began in 1923 (Grist 1975). The island of New Guinea began growing rice in the
nineteenth century (Bertin et al.
1971).
The dissemination of
Asian rice from one place to another took place for serendipitous reasons.
Mexico, for example, received its first lot of rice seed around 1522 in a cargo
mixed with wheat. South Carolina’s early plantings of rice around 1685-94
allegedly used rice salvaged from a wrecked ship whose last voyage began in
Madagascar (Grist 1975; Lu and Chang 1980).
In addition, the
deliberate introduction of rice has produced other unexpected benefits. This
occurred when the Champa rice of central Vietnam were initially brought to the
coastal areas of South China. In 1011-12 the Emperor Chen-Tsung of the Sung
Dynasty decreed the shipment of 30,000 bushels of seed from Fukien Province
into the lower Yangtze basin because of the grain’s early maturing and
drought-escaping characteristics. But its subsequent widespread use in China
paved the way for the double cropping of rice and the multiple cropping of rice
and other crops (Ho 1956; Chang 1987).
Cooking Preferences:
Consumer preference for cooked rice and
other rice products varies greatly from region to region and is largely a
matter of personal preference based on upbringing. Different kinds of cooked
rice are distinguished by cohesiveness or dryness, tenderness or hardness,
whiteness or other colours, flavour or taste, appearance, and aroma (or its absence).
Of these features, cohesiveness or dryness is the most important varietal
characteristic: High amylose (25 to 30 percent) of the starchy endosperm
results in dry and fluffy kernels; intermediate amylose content (15 to 25
percent) produces tender and slightly cohesive rice; low amylose content (10 to
15 percent) leads to soft cohesive (aggregated) rice; and glutinous or waxy
endosperm (0.8 to 1.3 percent amylose) produces highly sticky rice. Amylopectin
is the other and the major fraction of rice starch in the endosperm.
Most
residents of Shanghai prefer the cohesive keng (Sinica) rice, whereas
people in Nanjing about 270 kilometres away in the same province prefer the
drier hsien (Indica) type. Tribal people of Burma, Laos, Thailand, and
Vietnam eat glutinous rice three times a day a habit unthinkable to the people
on the plains. Indians and Pakistanis pay a higher price for the basmati rice,
which elongate markedly upon cooking and have a strong aroma. Jasmine rice, a
counterpart of Basmati rice of Thailand has worldwide acceptability. People of South Asia generally prefer
slender-shaped rice, but many Sri Lankans fancy the short, roundish samba
rice, like Pachaperumal which also
have red seed coats. Red rice is also prized by tribal people of Southeast Asia
(Kiple and Ornelas
2000) and by numerous Asians during festivities. It
appears that the eye appeal of red or purple rice stems from the symbolic
meaning given the colour red throughout Asia, which is "good luck".
Milling:
The pestle and mortar were doubtless the
earliest implements used to mill rice grains. The milling machines of more
recent origin use rollers that progressed from stone to wood to steel and then
to rubber-wrapped steel cylinders. Wooden Dheki was widely used for
manual dehusking. Modern rice mills and husking mills has replaced all Dhekis
and also taken away the jobs of odd female workers in the village. The women
folk used to sing while dehusking paddy in Dekhi and other manual
dehusking tools.
Religious
rites and culture:
Unlike
Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism, Buddhism has less rigid dietary laws defining
what people can eat and with whom they can dine. However, fasting and feasting
are integral parts of most religious traditions, and Buddhism is no exception.
In rice-growing Asian communities where Buddhism is practiced, food in rituals
reflects the rhythms of food production, including its scarcity or abundance
during the year. Both paddy and rice are
the integral part of various communities and religions. The first-solid-food-giving ceremony (Annaparashan
in Sanskrit means feeding rice) of a Hindu baby begins with eating Payaesh
at 6 months after birth. The baby is gradually introduced to solid foods
following this ceremony. Paddy along with grass twigs (Cynodon dactylon)
is used for blessings, marriage ceremony, worshipping the Gods and Goddesses.
It is a custom to place paddy along with the twigs of grass at the mouth of a dying
cow. During the panicle initiation stage of rice at the end of the month of Aaswin
(15 September to 15 the October), farmers visit their field after taking a bath
and place the amaranth plants, elephants foot, zinger, mustard seed, flowers of
Asoka (Saraca indica), raw
rice etc in the field and they pray for good health of the pregnant rice
plant.
The Goddess Lakshmi symbolizes
wealth and prosperity through grains. Bengalee Hindus replace old paddy with
newly harvested paddy during the month of Pous (December 15 to Jan 15)
in the sacred pot made of cane stick (Kunke) placed at the feet of the
Goddess.
Nabanna (it means new grain
in Bengali) is celebrated by all the communities of India. It marks the harvest
festival of rice in Bengal during the full moon of Agrhayan (15th Nov-15th
Dec). Newly harvested rice is boiled with date palm molasses to make Payesh.
Some early maturing rice varieties are preferred for this festival.
Pous Parban (festival at the
end of the Pous month) is also an extension of harvest festival of
Bengal, celebrated widely by the Hindus and Muslims. Different rice cakes (pithe,
puli, ras bara, saru chakli etc) are prepared with the rice flour of newly
harvested rice, scented rice is in great demand. Earlier there were more than
50 types of rice cakes were in vogue but with advent of fast food these
cultures are fast vanishing. Tribes like Saontals celebrate it as Janbar/Baoui
festival. It is worth mentioning that the speakers of Austric language
(Saontali, Ho, Mundari etc) developed the rice cultivation technique in the
eastern part of India.
The Jagannath Temple of Puri used to
make 365 types of Mahprasda from 365 different rice varieties grown by
the farmers cultivating around the temple. The conserving the folk rice variety
was linked to religious rites.
Vanishing
Wealth:
From a single sp of
Oryza sativa, more than 82000 (NBPGR, 2007-08) rice varieties
were selected by the farmers of Indian subcontinent. It took several centuries.
These are region specific indigenous or folk varieties. A survey during 1930
revealed that the Bengal (east and west) had 15000 folk rice varieties
(UBINIG 2010).
On the other hand, nearly 600 modern rice varieties were developed in India by
crossing indica and japonica or selection from the cross.
International Rice Research Institute of
Manila, Philippines has the largest collection folk rice varieties from
different countries. One record reveals that Rice Research Station, Chinsurah,
West Bengal has sent more than 3500 varieties to IRRI during 1975-1983 (Deb
2005). Mostly these are not well maintained by the donor countries. These are
not easy accessible to the donor countries. This is the primary source of
hybridization but the farmers or the farmers' group maintaining them over the
centuries are not getting share of the newly produced HYV seeds out of their
folk varieties. Meanwhile most of the region specific folk rice varieties have
been pushed into extinction due to input intensive modern varieties in the name
of Green Revolution. Out of 5500 folk varieties of West Bengal, only a handful
of folk rice are extant in farmers' fields. It has been lost forever along with
the unique genetic makeup. It is a loss for the entire human civilization.
Table 3. List of the countries that sent the rice germplasm to IRRI,
Philippines
|
Sl. No.
|
Country
from where the seed collected
|
No
of folk varieties
|
|
1.
|
India
|
16013
|
|
2.
|
Laos
|
15280
|
|
3.
|
Indonesia
|
8993
|
|
4.
|
China
|
8507
|
|
5.
|
Thailand
|
5985
|
|
6.
|
Bangladesh
|
5923
|
|
7.
|
Philippines
|
5515
|
|
8.
|
Cambodia
|
4908
|
|
9.
|
Malaysia
|
4028
|
|
10.
|
Myanmar
|
3335
|
|
11.
|
Vietnam
|
3039
|
|
12.
|
Nepal
|
2545
|
|
13.
|
Sri Lanka
|
2123
|
Source: FAO 2003, Published in Amader
Dhan Boichitra (In Bengali), 2010, UBINIG, Dhaka, pp36
Agriculture becomes
agribusiness:
The traditional agriculture of India continued over thousands
of years has been fully organic and it has
been one of the oldest and advanced forms of food production based on the
principles of mixed cropping, crop rotation, use of region specific crop
varieties, and incorporation of organic inputs along with Indigenous
Technological Knowledge. Farmers, over the centuries maintained and nurtured
entire food production system and crop bio-diversity as well. It has proved to
be inherently sustainable over centuries along with its crop-diversity and
indigenous technological knowledge (Howard 1940; reprint 2001, Shiva 2004).
American
method of industrial agriculture in the name of green revolution (GR) during
mid 60s ushered a novel era in the field of Indian agriculture by replacing all
the region specific folk rice varieties in most of the areas and the related
culture as well. The GR has replaced the cropping pattern of rice
after-legume-rotation by introducing boro in place of rabi pulse
crop which require very less amount of water and management. It was presumed
that this western method was the only method of producing more grains within
shortest possible time for combating the perceived threat of famine. However,
the miracle High Yielding Varieties (HYV) seeds with chemical fertilizers and
pesticides gave remarkable yield during the initial years of green revolution.
A series of miracle HYV seeds followed, all of which were replaced with
successive releases, mostly by the International Rice Research Institute of
Philippines. Social scientists, scientists, politicians, economists and
ecologists were critical of GR and opined that it would be a major blow to the
unique stable agricultural production system.
With
the passage of time, the consequences of GR with industrial chemicals have
manifested. The apprehensions were proved to be true when the current
industrial farming practices have depleted the fertility of the soil and 35% of
the earth’s severely degraded lands have further been damaged by the highly
mechanized chemical intensive agricultural practices. The importance of
indigenous crop varieties has been ignored in the mainstream industrial
agriculture. The craze for development in the media has never pointed out that
the HYVs are in fact not high yielding if productivity is measured as yield per
unit of water input (ton / k lit) and that folk varieties are more cost
effective and ecologically sustainable than most HYVs (Shiva 1991; Deb 2004 and
2005).The GR has never estimated the importance of biodiversity (crop, fish,
insects, mammals and birds) and disappearance of locally consumed food.
Although the initial productivity of the crop increased but it showed a plateau
or diminishing trend during the last two decades (Shiva 2002; Deb 2005; Kukal et
al. 2008; Oonyu, 2011).
Food
availability deficit:
The
primary aim of the GR was to feed the teeming millions. Lack of food is rarely
the reason people go hungry (Sundaram 2010). Even now, there is enough food in
the world, but more people cannot afford to buy their required food. In India
huge amount of food grain rot in the go-downs while a large section of people
remain unfed. Prof Amarty Sen has proved that famines did not occur due lack of
food and increase in food production does not necessarily guarantee the
availability of food; rather it is the question of distribution and purchasing
power of the people (Sen 1981)
Crop diversity-a neglected affair:
Agricultural biodiversity constitutes a significant portion of the global
biodiversity that has direct use value. Indeed the existence of the entire
economy is pivoted on the ago biodiversity of the country (Brown 1997).
But the importance of indigenous crop varieties has consistently
been ignored in the mainstream industrial agriculture (IA) presuming that all
the indigenous varieties were low yielder. The primary thrust of IA is on grain
yield, not on other ecological functions, region specificity, qualities like
taste, aroma, fineness, nutritive value of grain and straw. The necessity of
evaluation and conservation of folk rice has received very scant attention by
the formal agricultural institutes.
A faint need
was felt to document the characters of the crop varieties after an American
company getting patents of Indian Basmati rice. During the regime of WTO-
TRIPS, the folk crops are to be well documented in order to protect it from
bio-piracy. Conceiving this, Govt. of India has enacted Biodiversity act 2002
and state biodiversity board has been formed in most states. However, the Decade of Biodiversity
(2011-2020) declared by the UN is a move towards awareness generation against
biodiversity destruction. It is known that biodiversity signifies greater food
security. India is one of the 12 mega-diverse countries in the world.
During the 99th Session of the Indian Science Congress recognized the
Traditional Agricultural System of Koraput (Odisha, India) as a Globally
Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS) site. This region is famous for
its rich agricultural biodiversity of global importance. The genetic diversity
of Asian cultivated rice and has been considered as the centre of origin of aus
ecotype of rice. The landraces or traditional varieties growing here are
thought to be harboring dominant genes for biotic and abiotic stresses, aroma
and palatability, and hold promise for their utilization in future crop
improvement programme. Apart from Jeypore tract, (Koraput) in some areas of
tropical Asia, the Batticoloa district of Sri Lanka and the forested areas of
north Thailand, free-shattering grains from wild rice can still be witnessed
today (Chang 1976b; Higham 1989).
Rice is
under crisis:
Almost
one third of the world population is depended on rice and it is one of the
important staple crops in the world including India. It is being cultivated in
more than 100 countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Caribbean Islands
The most important staple crop of the world is in crisis. Recent publications
of Green Peace-Future of Rice (Emerlito and Deb 2006) and Rice
Industry in Crisis (2007) give an overview of the crisis. The region
specific varieties are fast vanishing from the fields due to massive propaganda
for HYV. Recently, it is further aggravated by aggressive marketing of Hybrid
rice. Hybrid rice would jeopardize the
rice seed sovereignty of the farmers. The average grain yield of hybrid rice is
not consistent and it varies from 3t–6t/ha. and it cannot be grown without
heavy application of agrochemicals. The Indo US Knowledge Initiative of 2005
that focuses on further industrialization of agriculture is also a blow to our
own rich biodiversity-based traditional agricultural system as opined by
different experts across India.
Heir-loom
rice diversity and farmers:
The
rice diversity of India is very unique and the special grain qualities and
morphological characters of rice have almost been forgotten with the advent of high yielding varieties. The folk
rice is quite synonymous to livelihood, culture, and rituals of the Indian
farmers. Besides grain, straw is very useful by-product for cattle-feed and
roofing material. Along with the application of fertilizers, HYVs are meant for
giving grain output only. Farmers have also been lured by the initial high
grain yields but it declines with the passage of time despite heavy application
of agro-chemicals. Now a section of farmers, institutional scientists, and
workers have realized the colossal loss crop biodiversity and felt the
necessity of crop conservation. Meanwhile, the demand for folk rice varieties
among the progressive farmers are on the rise.
As
the cost of production of folk varieties under organic management is low,
fetches more profit, maintains soil health and gives sustainable yield. Grain
yield of Kerala Sundari, Baghurupi, Bangla Patnai, Kesab Sal and Baurani
vary from 5-6 ton/ha. in different edapho-climatological conditions.
Agricultural Training Centre, Fulia has conducted four year long extensive
research on comparative study of chemical and organic nutrient management of
rice during kharif season and found
that the folk variety Kerala Sundari under organic management gave more yield
than chemically grown MTU 7029 and the scented variety Radhatilak fetches more
price than non-scented varieties (Paul et al 2011). It was also observed that low available
phosphate and potash does not hamper the folk rice growth and organic plots had
more saprozoic nematodes and
CFUs (Colony forming units) of bacteria and fungi (Paul 2011).
After
devastating AILA in Sundarban of 2009, farmers of Jogeshgunj area of Hingalgunj
block have taken up true salt tolerant varieties like Talmugur, Hogla,
Lalgetu, Sadagetu etc. Meanwhile, salt tolerant varieties like Matla
and Hamiltan are no longer found in those areas and not even in the
nearby institutions and farms. Prior to AILA they used to grow modern salt
tolerant varieties like Lunishree and other HYVs like CR, 1009.1017,
1018.SR 26B. The traditional salt tolerant varieties can cope up with the
prevailing saline and deep water condition. After the breach of river bank
during AILA, the field became more salty and the farmers need to use region
specific folk rice varieties which has natural resistant to insect pest and
diseases. Seeds of folk varieties can be continued for years together (unlike
HYVs) even for 1000 years (for e.g. Basmati rice) provided the seed
conservation technique is maintained. The unique characters of folk rice are
not included in the syllabus of Agronomy in the agricultural universities of
India. Within few years, these precious
varieties would be vanished if proper care for conservation is not taken up and
obviously no scientist in the world would bring back them.
Table 4. A representative list of folk rice varieties having
unique characters
|
Sl. No.
|
Unique characters
|
Folk Varieties
|
|||
|
1.
|
Tolerate drought and high
temperature of Bankura and Purulia ,grown generally during pre-kharif
|
Kelas, Asnaliya, Bhutmuri
|
|||
|
2.
|
Aus varieties grown during pre-kharif
|
Shatika, Kelas, Bansgajal, Bhutmuri
|
|||
|
3.
|
Tolerate salinity in Sundarban area
|
Matla*, Talmugur,
Hogla, Kantarangi, Nona bokra, Lalgetu, Sada getu
|
|||
|
4
|
Rice for mixed cropping- seeds of two varieties are mixed
up and broadcasted in low lying areas during early Jaisthya ( May –
June)
|
Birpana, Benajhupi(166 days) harvested on month apart
|
|||
|
5.
|
Cold tolerant rice
in Darjeeling district
|
Himal
|
|||
|
6.
|
Rice for fish cum paddy culture in low lying sali land during kharif season-a lot of
varieties
|
Jabra, Koijuri, Paniklas, Pantaras, Lalkalam, Meghi,
Dorangi
|
|||
|
7.
|
Long and bold grain
|
Kabirajsal,
Lalbahal, Moulo,Patnai
|
|||
|
8.
|
Short and bold grain
|
Dorangi,
Kalomota, Talmugur , Bahurupi, Kerala Sundari
|
|||
|
9.
|
Scented- long grain
|
Basmati, Dehradun, Karnal local
|
|||
|
10.
|
Scented- medium long
|
Dehradun
gandheswari, Kalonunia
|
|||
|
11.
|
Scented –short and bold
|
Lilabati,
Kaminibhog, Kanakchur, Tulsa, Tulsimukul,Mohonbhog
|
|||
|
12.
|
Scented –short and small, mainly used as offerings to
God/Goddess. Used for making Payes and other sweets.
|
Radhatilak,Gobindobhog,Tulaipanji,
Lalbadshabhog,Kataribhog,
Dudheswar, Kalojira.
|
|||
|
13.
|
Fine- long grain; mainly used for guests
|
Sitasal, Chamarmani, Patnai
Banskhati,Rupsal, Nagra sal, Nagra patnai,Lalkamini,Lalsaroo,Jhingasal
|
|||
|
14.
|
Longest rice , longer than Basmati grain
|
Dokra dekhri ( Chatisgarh) 14 mm long
|
|||
|
15.
|
Non lodging habit – all folk varieties necessarily mean
lodging habit. HYVs also lodge sometimes due to heavy N fertilization or
heavy rain after dough stage.
|
Pari,
Para, Gheos, Bahurupi, Boubhog, Cheena pakri, Lalsita,
|
|||
|
16.
|
Panicle bears panicle in cluster.
|
Khejurchri,
Narkelchari, Thubi, Hatidhan
|
|||
|
17.
|
Withstand deep water of 18 feet
|
Laksmi dighal, Panidhan.
|
|||
|
18.
|
Tolerate
submergence ;1-1.5 ft water above
|
Jaljabra,
Sadajabra, Panidhan, Lakshidighal, Panikalas
|
|||
|
19.
|
Rice
grows along with the rising water level
|
Laljabra, Sadajabra, Bajal,Jalkamini, Harmanona
|
|||
|
20.
|
Deep
water paddy in 3ft water, seedlings
along with a mud ball thrown in the low lying areas from small boat
|
Kumragore,
Laljabra, Sadajabra, Bajal, Tilakkachari, Bakui,Lalkalam
|
|||
|
21.
|
Deep water boro paddy- no rice is grown during kharif due to water
|
Kaloboro- fish cam paddy culture
|
|||
|
22.
|
Boro paddy -partial photo
insensitive
|
Guligati*,Lalboro, Sadaboro,
Kaloboro, Lathisal,Dudheswar,
|
|||
|
23.
|
Initially drought tolerant and later flood tolerant
|
Gamrah in Bastar district of Bihar
|
|||
|
24.
|
Popped rice( muri)
|
Marichsal, Moulo, Kalomota,Hamai, Kabirajsal,
Dharial,Kalam,Bhutia
|
|||
|
25.
|
Flattened rice ( chire)
|
Patnai, Borni, Bankchur, Jhingasal,
Kalma, Agniban,
|
|||
|
26.
|
Puffed rice
|
Moulo,
Paniduba, Balam, Patnai,
Binni(Bangladesh),Motadhusari,
Kanakchur
(scented), Laksmichur.
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
27.
|
Gruel-rice ( fena
bhat)
|
All the folk rice vars. having red
kernel
|
|
||
|
28.
|
Water-soaked rice ( Panta)
|
Kaoijhuri, Bhurisal, Panikalas
|
|
||
|
29.
|
Roti rice- flour is used for making roti
|
Dampha ( Maharastra)
|
|
||
|
30.
|
Double grained-two
kernels
|
Jugal
/ Ram- Balaram / Gour –Netai
|
|
||
|
31.
|
Triple grained – three kernels
|
Sateen
|
|
||
|
32.
|
Tasty bold rice
|
Bhurisal, Koijhuri,Kaminibhog, Kabirajsal,Agniban,Balamsal
|
|
||
|
33.
|
Tasty fine rice
|
Chamarmani, Jhingasal, Sitasal,
Dudheswar,Ramsal,Kataribhog, Banskthai, Dehradun gandheswari
|
|
||
|
34.
|
No boiling rice -3 types found in Assam
|
Komol ( Aghanibora)
|
|
||
|
35.
|
Low boiling time
|
All scented rice, Tulaipanji,
Dudheswar
|
|
||
|
36.
|
Khichuri (boiling of rice and pulse with
spices) rice, it splits longitudinally after cooking, scented
|
Bansphul (In Bangladesh)
|
|
||
|
37.
|
Medicinal rice- red and black rice containing vit B and
iron and others
Rice with
Camphor smell *
|
Red rice –Agniban, Dwrakasal, Bhurisal,Shatia, Kutepatnai,
Nivara ( Kerala), Tenduphul,
Kabirajsal, Lohagorah, Kalabhat( Black)
|
|
||
|
38.
|
Red rice – red seed coat
|
Agniban, Dwrakasal,
Bhurisal,
Shatia, Kutepatnai, Nivara( Kerala)
|
|
||
|
39.
|
Early satiety rice, less rice is required used for once a
day- meal
|
Bhutmuri, Sadamota, Tilakkachari
|
|
||
|
40.
|
High yield folk rice, gives grain yield -4.2-5.4 t / ha ;
comparable with HYVs.
|
Kerala Sundari, Bahurupi, Bakulphul, Jhuli, Patnai, Kesabsal, Raban sal, Sabita
|
|
||
|
41.
|
Short duration variety( Days)-seed to seed
|
Shatia(75),Dehradun
Gandheswari
(120) Pari( 85),Tulsa (110),
Kelas(110),
Kerala Sundari( 130)
|
|
||
|
42.
|
Long duration variety, more than 160 days
|
Kajaldekhi(
163).Jata leta, Meghi(165) Sal(172),
Jalkamini(160), Lalpatnai(165)
|
|
||
|
43.
|
Rice with purple leaf
|
Khara ( Orissa)
|
|
||
|
44.
|
Elongated -glume encircling the seed
|
Ramigelli
|
|
||
Source: After Deb (2005),
Biodiversity Conservation Farm, ATC, Fulia and other sources,
* Not found
in farmers’ fields.
These
unique characters are not found in any of the HYVs as these traits are mostly
polygenic in nature and it cannot be inserted in the breeding programme. Even
after insertion, the characters are not stable for obvious reasons. Salt
tolerant HYVs, deep water HYVs and scented HYVs etc are oxymoron.
Conservation
effort and Farmers Acceptance:
The region specific high yielding folk rice varieties are
not propagated as it does not involve any seed replacement (hence no seed
business prosperity), fertilizers and pesticides and herbicides (hence no
industrial growth). While some of the folk varieties can outperform the modern
varieties in terms of grain yield and pest resistance properties. Mainstream agricultural
research does not promote any of them so modern biotech business and
agro-chemical industries prosper. The availability of folk varieties is
severely limited. Barring a few individual efforts in Govt farms, no
appreciable governmental infrastructure has yet been geared to safeguard and
distribute heirloom seeds for resource poor farmers. Farmers are beginning to
understand the fallacy of high grain yield of HYVs and they have begun to
choose folk rice varieties which would usher in a new hope for the future of
the State's agriculture.
The VRIHI of Bankura
has started the pioneering work on folk rice conservation and characterization
work in 1997 and at present, it maintains more than 900 folk rice varieties at
Raygada district of Odisha (www.cintdis/basudha.org). This is the largest
nongovernmental seed exchange bank in east India. The Agricultural Training
Centre of Fulia has supplied folk rice varieties to Rice Research Station,
Chinsurah, other Govt farms, and the farmers across the state. Its Biodiversity Conservation Farm is
maintaining (300 varieties) and distributing folk rice varieties among the
farmers. During 2009, the centre distributed 45 folk rice varieties among 130
farmers. During 2013, the centre distributed 126 varieties among 80 farmers,
research scholars across the state setting a new record among the state run
farms of India. No Govt. farm has ever distributed so many folk varieties in a
year. This apart, several farmers, civil societies are also engaged in
conservation of folk rice varieties in order to ensure future food security and
to have sustainable yield. Many farmers become interested to grow the folk
varieties as the cost of cultivation of HYV escalates with declining trend in
grain yield. During 2010, farmers of Ausgram Block of Burdwan district have
grown more than 30 ha of folk varieties like Kerala Sundari and Bahurupi by
replacing the popular HYV MTU 7029. More than 165 folk varieties are being
maintained Richaria Conservation Centre at Avirampur village of Ausgram II
block, Burdwan district. Farmers under Paschim Sridhar Kathi Unnayn Sanghaya of
Jogeshgunj area of Hingalgung Block, N 24 Parganas are conserving, distributing
and cultivating more than 300 folk rice varieties. In 2013, the folk variety
Bahurupi yielding 5-6 ton/ha has covered a substantial area of 60 ha in the
remotest part of West Bengal.
 |
Spreading of rice
 |
 |
 |
Panicles of Bahurupi Different rice grains Pora Binni and Sada Binni
Komol -No boiling Rice Nivra – medicinal rice Khara
 |
|||
 |
|||
Red Clum of Bhutia Folk
Rice conservation at ATC Fulia
 |
 |
Profuse Tillers
Comparison between MTU 7029 and folk rice
Table 5.
Yield of some folk rice varieties under organic management at ATC Fulia (Averages of three years)
The varieties were sown following single plant transplanting method. All
the varieties did not respond equally in each year. Tillering habit of the
varieties varied and it were not equal for all the years. The average soil status were as follows-
pH-7.1, OC % 0.6, P2O5 44 kg / ha, K2O 98 kg /
ha with available micronutrients and
670 saprozoic nematode in 200 cc of soil. Apparent low status of nutrient does
not affect the yield of folk rice as the soil is living with soil microbes.
Modern varieties under organic management system did not give desired yield but
the farmers of Burdwan district are getting an average of 4000kg / ha. under
chemically managed plots. Hills were selected randomly and 25 hills were
selected out of each plot of varieties and yield parameters were determined.
However, the average grain and straw yield of
folk varieties are better in farmers’ filed under organically managed plots in
S and N 24 Parganas, Hoogly and Burdwan districts. But the grain yield was not
same for all the years. The grain yield of most of the varieties were equal to
4000 kg / ha and it is above the state level average of 3 t / ha.
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